To Kill A Mockingbird Essay: Southern Tradition Exposed -- Kill Mockin

Southerners are known to be proud of their traditional beliefs. To Kill A Mockingbird allows its readers to question and consider those beliefs. Maycomb represents a typical old southern town. Not many people move into Maycomb and not many people who live there journey beyond its boundaries. As a result, the opinions held by many of the citizens of Maycomb are left to grow and foster in the same families for many generations. The circumstances in Maycomb are less than ideal for generating change and more prone to sustaining traditionally accepted codes. Two codes embedded within southern social beliefs are class and race. The years of 1960 and 1961, when To Kill A Mockingbird was published, signaled a time of great change. The civil rights movement was in full swing and the country was undergoing social and economic reconstruction. Traditional thinking was being transformed into ideas and thoughts that had never been considered before, and old traditions were pitted against new ones. Looking into the Deep South, in a little town named Maycomb, tradition for most people meant prejudice, separation, and racism. Atticus Finch chooses to fight against this "old tradition" with traditions of his own. Because of his highly ethical character, Atticus is able to honorably defend Tom Robinson and promote a "new tradition" for himself and his children. Respect, dignity, and equality form the backbone of Atticus' belief system, a belief system containing qualities that are often overlooked in the traditional South. In the absence of outside support, Atticus fights his battle the only way he knows how -- with pat ience, perseverance, and honesty. The South and tradition are synonymous. Southerners are known to be proud of their tra... ... After realizing that he is fighting an uphill battle, it is Atticus' integrity that keeps him pushing forward. He sees the problems with southern traditional social codes and he realizes they must be redefined -- for the sake of his children, and his children's children. Atticus knows that one of these days someone is "going to pay the bill for it"(p.221). He realizes that traditional beliefs will not be changed over night, and he does not expect it. His solution to his dilemma is to stick firmly to his southern tradition and his beliefs. Atticus Finch is a true Southern gentleman. His courage, nobility, pride, and honesty allow him to do what few men at the time could do. Atticus does not fool himself by ignoring the inevitable. He accepts his position and attacks the traditional views that he does not believe in like a true gentleman -- face to face.

Professional Ethics and Civic Morals Essay

The role of the individual and its relationship to the state has been a matter of much sociological debate. Theorists in an array of varied fields such as philosophy, sociology, psychology, and politics have attempted to explain the correlation between the two. In this paper, I will concentrate on the role of individualism to an authoritarian or fascist political structure and how America’s ideals of intense individualism over the collective have led to a vulnerability to a totalitarian political regime. Using the work of Emile Durkheim on the idea of civic morals, i.e. the relationship of the individual to the State, as well as Amitai Etzioni’s study on particularistic obligations and Milgram’s views on obedience we will come to see that the definition of self in relation to the State plays an integral role on not only the individual’s role in the mechanics of the state but their subsequent obedience to the state system. In his work Professional Ethics and Civic Morals, Emile Durkheim explores the relationship of the individual to himself, his family, his profession, and finally his government. As he notes in his defining of the state, there has been since the beginning of civilization, as we know it a direct opposition between the political parties and their constituents. In this lies a division of power, those who wield the authority and those who submit to it. The state is defined as a spatial territory complete with its own customs and interests to which the political party should serve in view of a public good. In the United States, where the larger territory of the country is quite literally divided into semi-autonomous states which retain some control but answer to the federal government on other issues, there is a division of power that belies a partiality. With politics largely divided into two political categories Democrats and Republicans, there are limits and deviations from what the public good means. The American ideal of each individual voice having the power to influence policy and politics, while at the heart of the ideals of democracy, also tends to lead toward exclusionary and separatists policies that effect only a portion of a total population. In the name of the democratic process, Americans accept the results despite the fact that certain policies while acceptable and profitable for one portion of the population can have a detrimental effect on other factions stifle our voices. Durkheim notes that individuals are at the center of the development of any state society, whether it be artistic, economic or political. Without the individuals there can be not collective, however, the United States concentration on recognizing and using an individualist centered ideal of a collective leaves it vulnerable to the control of the collectiveness of a few over the many. Though it would seem that with the democratic structure of our election system and the multi-tiered mechanics of the law system that the United States would be immune to something such as fascism, in reality our system promotes much of the same individualist pandering seen in totalitarian societies. Americans do not always vote for the politics but rather individuals based on an array of factors including morality, religion, personal life/appearance, success with rhetoric, and the changing ethical landscape exemplified in changing attitudes towards science, religion, and race as well as other socio-political structures. Our election campaign process involves the polarizing of certain individual figureheads and not that of ideas, the ideas and policies become secondary in a society, which concentrates so completely on external signifiers. Aggravating the United States state of the pseudo-democratic process is a state of isolation that has been both promoted by the federal government during the Bush era and broken down into a more universalistic approach by Obama. However, at the heart of the patriotism that defines the country, there is a pride, which excludes others and promotes U.S. interests over that of a collective world society. This policy of patriotic isolationism leaves the U.S. particularly vulnerable to a totalitarian regime in that its interests stretch only to within its own borders. As Etzioni notes, â€Å"isolated people tend to be irrational, impulsive, and open to demagogical appeals and totalitarian movements. One could argue that these movements have risen only in societies and periods in which social integration has been greatly weakened† (590). Drawing on this concept, the lack of social cohesiveness following the September 11 attacks when the government suspended certain civil rights for certain people in the name of fighting terrorism, shows the power of a small portion of government to take effective and complete control over the lives of its people without a democratic or collective process. The rights that were stripped from all were done so in effect to stop an unknown number and an unknown contingent of society. That these restrictions affected the whole was of little consequence to the government and at first for a large part of American citizens who obeyed these without question. This is perhaps one of the most recent and poignant examples of the risks posed to the United States by a totalitarian/fascist government. Elsewhere in American history we can see similar instances where a minority of people (in the larger schema, though a large group themselves) having been oppressed and persecuted by a small group of government or political interests; think the Japanese Americans of World War II – the rhetoric of hate used to imprison them seemingly eerily familiar to the fascism of Hitler and Mussolini though hidden under the pretense of security. The conformity of the American people to government decisions that actually demoralize and depress an entire portion of individual peoples, shown through the nation’s history, have been both negative and positive. Bernard Bass in discussing Miligram’s conformity paradigm defines conformity as â€Å"behavior reflecting the successful influence of other persons† (38), wherein he shows that the definition of any successful government whether it be democratic or authoritarian relies on obedience, the difference between the two lies in the structure of the society and its beliefs on the individual’s political view point. Every state runs a risk of being overpowered and seized by an authoritarian regime; however, their overall success is contingent on the attitudes of the individuals who make up that state. In a communist controlled government such as China, where the ideals of socialist reform are extolled if not always practiced, the ground in dogma of the party would undermine the detrimental influence of a demagogic individual. However, in the United States where the individual is seen to have control over his own individual destiny which can be and is interwoven into the social fabric, the very ideals that give importance to the idea of the individual also make the country vulnerable to the control of such individuals. While the American government structure attempts to hedge itself against this danger by having a governing body broken into two major parts and limits on the executive branch’s control. But given the right set of circumstances such as terrorism and blind fear, the democratic power of the people can easily be superseded by the hands of only a few. Fear and intimidation work on many levels, some more subtle than others, all leading to an obedience and control, which are at the heart of a totalitarian authority. References Bass, B. (1961). â€Å"Conformity, Deviation, and a General Theory of Interpersonal Behavior.† Conformity and Deviation. Ed. I.A. Berg and B. Bass. New York: Harper and Brothers, pp. 38-101. Durkheim, E. (1992). Professional Ethics and Civic Morals. Ed. C. Brookfield. New York: Routledge. Etzioni, A. (Fall 2002) â€Å"Are Particularistic Obligations Justified? A Communitarian Justification.† The Review of Politics. 64 (4). pp. 573-598.

What You Need To Know About Cinco de Mayo in English and Spanish

 ¿Quà © es el Cinco de Mayo? What is Cinco de Mayo? This bilingual feature has been written with classroom use in mind — a grammar guide at the end provides useful tips for Spanish students. En espaà ±ol: Los orà ­genes del Cinco de Mayo Muchos creen que el cinco de mayo es el aniversario de la independencia mexicana. Pero no tienen razà ³n — el dà ­a de independencia en Mà ©xico es el 16 de septiembre. Para familiarizarse con los orà ­genes de la celebracià ³n, es necesario estudiar los sucesos a mediados del siglo diecinueve. Despuà ©s de la Guerra Mexicana Americana, Mà ©xico enfrentaba una crisis econà ³mica. En 1861, Benito Juà ¡rez, el presidente mexicano, declarà ³ que Mà ©xico aplazarà ­a por dos aà ±os los pagos de deudas exteriores. Aunque Juà ¡rez hubo dicho que se reanudarà ­an los pagos en 1863, la promesa no satisfizo a Gran Bretaà ±a, Francia y Espaà ±a. Se ablandaban Gran Bretaà ±a y Espaà ±a, pero Francia insistià ³ en obtener su dinero por la fuerza. Napoleà ³n III, emperador de los franceses, nombrà ³ un pariente, archiduque Maximillian de Austria, el là ­der de Mà ©xico. Mientras marchaba hacia la Ciudad de Mà ©xico, el ejà ©rcito francà ©s enfrentaba resistencia tenaz. El 5 de mayo, 1862, el general Ignacio Zaragoza y su ejà ©rcito mexicano vencieron el ejà ©rcito francà ©s en la batalla de Puebla. La victoria mexicana era una sorpresa porque el ejà ©rcito francà ©s era mà ¡s grande y tenà ­a materiales superiores. Segà ºn  un refrà ¡n inglà ©s, es posible ganar la batalla y perder la guerra. Los franceses ganaron otras batallas, y Maximillian se hizo là ­der en 1864. Pero los franceses, enfrentando resistencia mexicana y presià ³n de los Estados Unidos, retiraron las tropas en 1867. El Cinco de Mayo es un dà ­a para conmemorar el coraje de los luchadores contra la opresià ³n. Quizà ¡s por eso este dà ­a de fiesta es muy popular dondequiera haya personas de ascendencia mexicana. Por ejemplo, la fiesta hoy dà ­a es muy popular en Estados Unidos, donde viven muchas persons con antepasados de Mà ©xico. In English: Origins of Mexicos Cinco de Mayo Many people believe that May 5 is the anniversary of the Mexican Independence. But theyre mistaken, for the Mexican Independence Day is September 16. To understand the origins of the celebration, you need to go back to the middle of the 19th century. After the Mexican-American War of 1846-48, Mexico was in a fiscal crisis. In 1861 Mexican President Benito Juà ¡rez declared that Mexico was suspending payment on all its foreign debt for two years. Even though Juà ¡rez had said payments would resume in 1863, Great Britain, France and Spain were not satisfied. Although the British and Spanish-backed off, France insisted on using force to secure its debt payments. French Emperor Napoleon III named a relative of his, Archduke Maximillian of Austria, as ruler of Mexico. As it was marching toward Mexico City, the French Army encountered stiff resistance. On May 5, 1862, General Ignacio Zaragoza defeated the French Army in the Battle of Puebla. The Mexican victory was a surprise, for the French Army was larger and better equipped. There is a saying that its possible to win the battle and lose the war. The French won other battles, and Maximillian became the ruler in 1864. But facing Mexican resistance and American pressure, the French withdrew their troops in 1867. Cinco de Mayo is a time to recognize the bravery of those who fight against oppression. Perhaps that is why this holiday is popular wherever there are people of Mexican descent. For example, the fiesta these days is very popular in the United States, where many people who have Mexican ancestors live. Grammatical Highlights Differences in uses of the two simple past tenses of Spanish can be seen in the article. In general, the preterite is used here in referring to ordinary events (such as with ganaron for the winning of battles), the imperfect is used to provide background, such as in the use of tenà ­an  materiales (literally had materiel). Names of the months typically arent capitalized in Spanish. The name of the holiday is, however. Adjectives such as mexicana and francà ©s derived from names of countries also arent capitalized, nor are most titles such as archiduque. Note how reflexive verbs such as familiarizarse and reanudarse (in the form se reanudarà ­an) are used. Alhough the two verbs could be translated literally in this context as to familiarize oneself and to resume themselves, such a translation would be awkward. In the third paragraph, a comma is used after France in English but not after Francia in Spanish. That is because Spanish does not use the Oxford comma before the y (and) in a series of words.

Essay - 897 Words

We, as humans, have come a long way in terms of tools. We started out using rocks, sticks, and simple things found in nature. Now we use heavy, complex machinery and synthetic plastics to generate and design anything we could possibly think of. In an effort to understand the ways of earlier humans differently, I was tasked with researching and creating a tool using the methods from prehistory. In this ethnography, I will be describing the tool that I made, explaining modern tools in today’s society, and speculating how I would fair in prehistoric times. For our class activity last week, I decided to make a spoon out of an old piece of bone. In my research, I discovered that in early cultures, people would remove the larger bones from the†¦show more content†¦I wanted to be as authentic as possible, so I stuck to my backyard and I only gathered materials that were completely natural. I only used things that could be found in nature alone. I spent a couple hours in clas s and then for the next few days continued to work on it. It was difficult for me to figure out how to actually make this idea work. And once I did figure out how to move forward and do the steps I had a few issues with actually figuring out how to carry them out in an efficient and successful way.I am part of a generation where it has always been if you need something then you simply drive to a store and buy it premade, all wrapped up in a little plastic package. So to have to figure out a way to create something that I needed instead of just going and buying it was different for me. Next, I took a look and tried to gain a new perspective from the modern tools that we use everyday. Most of their names describe exactly what their primary functions are. For example a hammer is used to hammer things in and a screwdriver is used to drive in screw. We use a lot of different tools. Each of our tools are specialized and usually only have two main functions at most. If we compare that to prehistoric times it seems almost like a waste of materials. For instance you can use a rock for many different actions including, but not limited to: scraping, hammering, skinning, killing, and carving. Ultimately, I am not entirely sure how I would fairShow MoreRelatedWhat Is an Essay?1440 Words   |  6 PagesBuscemi Essay #3 Rough Draft An essay is a creative written piece in which the author uses different styles such as diction, tone, pathos, ethos or logos to communicate a message to the reader using either a personal experience, filled with morals and parables, or a informative text filled with educational terms. Educational terms could mean the usage of complicated and elevated words or simply information you would get in schools. 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In our days computers have become an importantRead More Community Essay843 Words   |  4 Pagesan important effect on the shaping of a person’s character is key in both Pythia Peay’s essay, â€Å"Soul Searching† and Winona LaDuke’s interview transcribed in essay form entitled, â€Å"Reclaiming Culture and the Land: Motherhood and the Politics of Sustaining Community†. The two authors present ideas, similar and different, of what it means to live in and be a part of community. Through examining these two essays, summarizing and synthesizing, we can gain a better understanding of what community is and

Analysis of Immanuel Kants Arguements in The...

In the essay titled â€Å"Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals† published in the Morality and Moral Controversies course textbook, Immanuel Kant argues that the view of the world and its laws is structured by human concepts and categories, and the rationale of it is the source of morality which depends upon belief in the existence of God. In Kant’s work, categorical imperative was established in order to have a standard rationale from where all moral requirements derive. Therefore, categorical imperative is an obligation to act morally, out of duty and good will alone. In Immanuel Kant’s writing human reason and or rational are innate morals which are responsible for helping human. Needless to say, this also allows people to be able to†¦show more content†¦Freedom of the will can never be disproven or proven because will is influenced by the force outside of the human body and humans use reason to determine the law themselves. Rational people recogni ze themselves as free according to the categorical imperative. Though I found myself sometimes disagreeing with the philosophy by Immanuel Kant, I found his subjective reasoning to be thought-provoking. I was pulled by two different forces after Kant defined happiness as â€Å"the state of a rational being in the world in the whole of whose existence everything goes according to his wish and will.† This unconventional way of defining term of happiness strands away from the definition of happiness written by philosopher in the name of John Stuart Mill. Mill defines happiness as a state of â€Å"maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain.† In the writing, Immanuel argues that possession of wealth, health, or bravery can be used for afflicted purposes and these characteristics cannot be essentially good. To Kant, being worthy of happiness requires for one to possess a good will. The genuine good is the only unconditional good which is connected to a good will. Disastrous misfortunes can happen but the goodness of the will still remains. In this described above idea Immanuel provides a concrete support. According to my interpretation of the author’s idea and supporting statements, each day my actions consequentially are moderately influenced by Kant’s philosophy. I also believe that

Database Final Exam Free Essays

1. (Chapter 06): Describe a relational DBMS (RDBMS), its underlying data model, data storage structures, and manner of establishing data relationships: a. A relational DBMS (or RDMBS) is a data management system that implements a relational data model, one where data are stored in a collection of tables and the data relationships are represented by common valves, not links. We will write a custom essay sample on Database Final Exam or any similar topic only for you Order Now Pg. 247 b. Data are stored in a collection of tables and the data relationships are represented by common values not links. String| CARACTER (CHAR)CHARACTER VARYING (VARCHAR or VARCHAR2)BINARY LARGE OBJECT (BLOB)| Stores string values containing any character in a character set. CHAR is defined to be a fixed length. Stores string values containing any characters in a character set but of definable variable length. Stores binary string values in hexadecimal format. BLOB is defined to be a variable length. (Oracle also has CLOB and NCLOB, as well as BFILE for storing unstructured data outside the database. )| Number| NUMERICINTERGER(INT)| Stores exact numbers with a defined precision and scale. Stores exact numbers with a predefined precision and scale of zero| Temporal| TIMESTAMPTIMESTAMP WITH LOCAL TIME ZON| Stores a moment an event occurs, using a definable fraction-of-a-second precision. Value adjusted to the user’s session time zone (available in Oracle and MySQL)| Boolean| BOOLEAN| Stores truth values: TRUE, FALSE or UNKNOWN| c. The relational data model assumes that you have completed the activity ‘An ER Model d. The power of the RDBMS is realized through†¦. The relationship existing between the tables. The relationships are established by including common column or columns in every table where a relationship is needed. . (Chapter 06): What are six potential benefits of achieving an SQL standard? Pg. 245-246 a. Reduce training cost b. Productivity c. Application portability d. Application longevity e. Reduce dependence on a single vendor f. Cross-system communication 3. (Chapter 07): Define each of the following key terms: a. Dynamic SQL: Specific S QL code generated on the fly while an application is processing. Pg. 326 b. Correlated subquery: Use the result of the outer query to determine the processing of the inner query. Pg. 303 c. Embedded SQL: Hard-coded SQL statements included in a program written in another language, such as C or Java. Pg. 323 d. Procedure: A collection of procedural and SQL statements that are assigned a unique name within the schema and stored in the database. Pg. 323 e. Join: A relational operation that causes two tables with a common domain to be combined into a single table or view. Pg. 290 f. Equi-join: A join in which the joining condition is based on equality between vales in the common columns. Common columns appear (redundantly) in the result table. P 291 g. Self-join: There are times when a join requires matching rows in a table with other rows in that same table – that is, joining table with itself. Pg. 297 . Outer join: A join in which rows that do not have matching values in common columns are nevertheless included in the result table. Pg. 293 i. Function: A stored subroutine that returns one value and has only input parameters. Pg323 j. Persistent Stored Modules (SQL/PSM): Extensions defined in SQL:1999 that include the capability to create and drop modules of code stored in t he database schema across user sessions. Pg. 319 4. (Chapter 07): Write the SQL Query needed to: Display CourseID and CourseName for all courses in the Course Table where the CourseID has an ‘ISM’ prefix: Query: SELECT [CourseTable]. CourseID, [CourseTable]. CourseName FROM CourseTable WHERE((([CourseTable]. CourseID)=†ISM†)); 5. (Chapter 08): What are the advantages/disadvantages of two-tier architectures? Pg. 339 An advantage of two-tier architecture The advantage of the two-tier design is its simplicity. The TopLink database session that builds the two-tier architecture provides all the TopLink features in a single session type, thereby making the two-tier architecture simple to build and use. A disadvantage of the two-tier architecture is The most important limitation of the two-tier architecture is that it is not scalable, ecause each client requires its own database session. * 6. (Chapter 08): What are six common steps to access databases? Pg. 340 * a. Identify and register a database driver b. Open a connection to a database c. Execute a query against the database d. Process the results of a query e. Repeat step 3-4 as necessary f. Close the connection to the database * * * 7. (Chapter 09): Wha t are the three major components of Data Warehouse architecture? Pg. 389 a. Operational data are stored in the various operational systems of record throughout the organization (and sometimes in external systems). . Reconciled data are the type of data stored in the enterprise data warehouse and an operational data stored. c. Derived data are the type of data stored in each of the data marts. * * 8. (Chapter 09): What are the four characteristics of a data warehouse? a. Subject Orientation: Data organized by subject b. Integration: Consistency of defining parameters c. Non-volatility: Stable data storage medium d. Time-variance: Timeliness of data and access terms * 9. (Chapter 09): What are the five claimed limitations of independent data marts? Pg. 384 . A separate ETL process is developed for each data mart, which can yield costly redundant data and processing efforts. b. Data marts may not be consistent with one another because they are often developed with different technologie s, and thus they may not provide a clear enterprise-wide view of data concerning important subjects such as customers, suppliers, and products. c. There is no capability to drill down into greater detail or into related facts in other data marts or a shared data repository, so analysis is limited, or at best very difficult. . Scaling costs are excessive because every new application that creates a separate data mart repeats all the extract and load steps. e. if there is an attempt to make the separate data marts consistent, the cost to do so is quite high. * 10. (Chapter 09): What are the three types of operations that can be easily performed with OLAP tools? Pg. 214-215 a. Relational OLAP (ROLAP) –Star Schema based b. Multidimensional OLAP (MOLAP) –Cube based c. Hybrid OLAP (HOLAP) * 11. (Chapter 10): What are the four key components of a data governance program? Pg. 435 . Sponsorship from both senior management and business units b. A data steward manager to support, train, and coordinate the data stewards c. Data stewards for different business units, data subjects, source systems, or combinations of these elements d. A governance committee, headed by one person, but composed of data steward managers, executives and senior vice presidents, IT leadership and others business leaders, to set strategic goals, coordinate activities, and provide guidelines and standards for all data management activities. * * 12. Chapter 10): What are the four ways that data capture processes can be improved to improve data quality? According to Inmon (2004), there are several actions that can be taken at the original data capture step: Pg. 441 a. Enter as much of the data as possible via automatic, not human, means (e. g. , from data stored in a smart card or pulled from a database, such as retrieving current values for addresses, account numbers, and other personal characteristics). b. Where data must be entered manually, ensure that it is selected from preset opt ions (e. . , drop-down menus of selections pulled from the database), if possible. c. Use trained operators when possible (help systems and good prompts/examples can assist end users in proper data entry). d. Follow good user interface design principles that create consistent screen layouts, easy to follow navigation paths, clear data entry masks and formats (which can be defined in DDL), minimal use of obscure codes can be looked up and displayed from the database, not in the application programs), etc. . Immediately check entered data for quality against data in the database, so use triggers and user-defined procedures liberally to make sure that only high-quality data enter the database; wen questionable data are entered (e. g. , â€Å"T for gender), immediate and understandable feedback should be given to the operator, questioning the validity of the data. How to cite Database Final Exam, Papers

Digital Image Processing free essay sample

Digital signal processor [edit] Typical characteristics Digital signal processing algorithms typically require a large number of mathematical operations to be performed quickly and repetitively on a set of data. Signals (perhaps from audio or video sensors) are constantly converted from analog to digital, manipulated digitally, and then converted again to analog form, as diagrammed below. Many DSP applications have constraints on latency; that is, for the system to work, the DSP operation must be completed within some fixed time, and deferred (or batch) processing is not viable. A simple digital processing system Most general-purpose microprocessors and operating systems can execute DSP algorithms successfully, but are not suitable for use in portable devices such as mobile phones and PDAs because of power supply and space constraints. A specialized digital signal processor, however, will tend to provide a lower-cost solution, with better performance, lower latency, and no requirements for specialized cooling or large batteries. The architecture of a digital signal processor is optimized specifically for digital signal processing. Most also support some of the features as an applications processor or microcontroller, since signal processing is rarely the only task of a system. Some useful features for optimizing DSP algorithms are outlined below. [edit] Architecture By the standards of general purpose processors, DSP instruction sets are often highly irregular. One implication for software architecture is that hand-optimized assembly is commonly packaged into libraries for re-use, instead of relying on unusually advanced compiler technologies to handle essential algorithms. Hardware features visible through DSP instruction sets commonly include: †¢Hardware modulo addressing, allowing circular buffers to be implemented without having to constantly test for wrapping. †¢A memory architecture designed for streaming data, using DMA extensively and expecting code to be written to know about cache hierarchies and the associated delays. †¢Driving multiple arithmetic units may require memory architectures to support several accesses per instruction cycle †¢Separate rogram and data memories (Harvard architecture), and sometimes concurrent access on multiple data busses †¢Special SIMD (single instruction, multiple data) operations †¢Some processors use VLIW techniques so each instruction drives multiple arithmetic units in parallel †¢Special arithmetic operations, such as fast multiply-accumulates (MACs). Many fundamental DSP algorithms, such as FIR filters or the Fast Fourier transform (FFT) depend heavily on multiply-accumulate performance. Bit-reversed addressing, a special addressing mode useful for calculating FFTs †¢Special loop controls, such as architectural support for executing a few instruction words in a very tight loop without overhead for instruction fetches or exit testing †¢Deliberate exclusion of a memory management unit. DSPs frequently use multi-tasking operating systems, but have no support for virtual memory or memory protection. Operating systems that use virtual memory require more time for context switching among processes, which increases latency. edit] Program flow †¢Floating-point unit integrated directly into the datapath †¢Pipelined architecture †¢Highly parallel multiplier–accumulators (MAC units) †¢Hardware-controlled looping, to reduce or eliminate the overhead required for looping operations [edit] Memory architecture †¢DSPs often use special memory architectures that are able to fetch multiple data and/or instructions at the same ti me: oHarvard architecture oModified von Neumann architecture †¢Use of direct memory access †¢Memory-address calculation unit edit] Data operations †¢Saturation arithmetic, in which operations that produce overflows will accumulate at the maximum (or minimum) values that the register can hold rather than wrapping around (maximum+1 doesnt overflow to minimum as in many general-purpose CPUs, instead it stays at maximum). Sometimes various sticky bits operation modes are available. †¢Fixed-point arithmetic is often used to speed up arithmetic processing †¢Single-cycle operations to increase the benefits of pipelining [edit] Instruction sets Multiply-accumulate (MAC, aka fused multiply-add, FMA) operations, which are used extensively in all kinds of matrix operations, such as convolution for filtering, dot product, or even polynomial evaluation (see Horner scheme) †¢Instructions to increase parallelism: SIMD, VLIW, superscalar architecture †¢Specialized instructions for modulo addressing in ring buffers and bit-reversed addressing mode for FFT cross-referencing †¢Digital signal processors sometimes use time-stationary encoding to simplify hardware and increase coding efficiency. [edit] History Prior to the advent of stand-alone DSP chips discussed below, most DSP applications were implemented using bit-slice processors. The AMD 2901 bit-slice chip with its family of components was a very popular choice. There were reference designs from AMD, but very often the specifics of a particular design were application specific. These bit slice architectures would sometimes include a peripheral multiplier chip. Examples of these multipliers were a series from TRW including the TDC1008 and TDC1010, some of which included an accumulator, providing the requisite multiply-accumulate (MAC) function. In 1978, Intel released the 2920 as an analog signal processor. It had an on-chip ADC/DAC with an internal signal processor, but it didnt have a hardware multiplier and was not successful in the market. In 1979, AMI released the S2811. It was designed as a microprocessor peripheral, and it had to be initialized by the host. The S2811 was likewise not successful in the market. In 1980 the first stand-alone, complete DSPs – the NEC  µPD7720 and ATT DSP1 – were presented at the International Solid-State Circuits Conference 80. Both processors were inspired by the research in PSTN telecommunications. The Altamira DX-1 was another early DSP, utilizing quad integer pipelines with delayed branches and branch prediction. The first DSP produced by Texas Instruments (TI), the TMS32010 presented in 1983, proved to be an even bigger success. It was based on the Harvard architecture, and so had separate instruction and data memory. It already had a special instruction set, with instructions like load-and-accumulate or multiply-and-accumulate. It could work on 16-bit numbers and needed 390 ns for a multiply-add operation. TI is now the market leader in general-purpose DSPs. Another successful design was the Motorola 56000. About five years later, the second generation of DSPs began to spread. They had 3 memories for storing two operands simultaneously and included hardware to accelerate tight loops, they also had an addressing unit capable of loop-addressing. Some of them operated on 24-bit variables and a typical model only required about 21 ns for a MAC (multiply-accumulate). Members of this generation were for example the AT DSP16A or the Motorola DSP56001. The main improvement in the third generation was the appearance of application-specific units and instructions in the data path, or sometimes as coprocessors. These units allowed direct hardware acceleration of very specific but complex mathematical problems, like the Fourier-transform or matrix operations. Some chips, like the Motorola MC68356, even included more than one processor core to work in parallel. Other DSPs from 1995 are the TI TMS320C541 or the TMS 320C80. The fourth generation is best characterized by the changes in the instruction set and the instruction encoding/decoding. SIMD extensions were added, VLIW and the superscalar architecture appeared. As always, the clock-speeds have increased, a 3 ns MAC now became possible. [edit] Modern DSPs Modern signal processors yield greater performance; this is due in part to both technological and architectural advancements like lower design rules, fast-access two-level cache, (E)DMA circuitry and a wider bus system. Not all DSPs provide the same speed and many kinds of signal processors exist, each one of them being better suited for a specific task, ranging in price from about US$1. 0 to US$300 Texas Instruments produce the C6000 series DSP’s, which have clock speeds of 1. 2 GHz and implement separate instruction and data caches. They also have an 8 MiB 2nd level cache and 64 EDMA channels. The top models are capable of as many as 8000 MIPS (instructions per second), use VLIW (very long instruction word), perform eight operations per clock-cycle and are compatible with a broad range of external periphera ls and various buses (PCI/serial/etc). TMS320C6474 chips each have three such DSPs, and the newest generation C6000 chips support floating point as well as fixed point processing. Freescale produce a multi-core DSP family, the MSC81xx. The MSC81xx is based on StarCore Architecture processors and the latest MSC8144 DSP combines four programmable SC3400 StarCore DSP cores. Each SC3400 StarCore DSP core has a clock speed of 1 GHz. Analog Devices produce the SHARC-based DSP and range in performance from 66 MHz/198 MFLOPS (million floating-point operations per second) to 400 MHz/2400 MFLOPS. Some models support multiple multipliers and ALUs, SIMD instructions and audio processing-specific components and peripherals. The Blackfin family of embedded digital signal processors combine the features of a DSP with those of a general use processor. As a result, these processors can run simple operating systems like ? CLinux, velOSity and Nucleus RTOS while operating on real-time data. NXP Semiconductors produce DSPs based on TriMedia VLIW technology, optimized for audio and video processing. In some products the DSP core is hidden as a fixed-function block into a SoC, but NXP also provides a range of flexible single core media processors. The TriMedia media processors support both fixed-point arithmetic as well as floating-point arithmetic, and have specific instructions to deal with complex filters and entropy coding. Most DSPs use fixed-point arithmetic, because in real world signal processing the additional range provided by floating point is not needed, and there is a large speed benefit and cost benefit due to reduced hardware complexity. Floating point DSPs may be invaluable in applications where a wide dynamic range is required. Product developers might also use floating point DSPs to reduce the cost and complexity of software development in exchange for more expensive hardware, since it is generally easier to implement algorithms in floating point. Generally, DSPs are dedicated integrated circuits; however DSP functionality can also be produced by using field-programmable gate array chips (FPGA’s). Embedded general-purpose RISC processors are becoming increasingly DSP like in functionality. For example, the ARM Cortex-A8 and the OMAP3 processors include a Cortex-A8 and C6000 DSP. [edit] See also †¢Digital signal controller [edit] References 1. ^ Yovits, Marshall C. (1993). Advances in computers. 37. Academic Press. pp. 105–107. http://books. google. com. sg/books? id=vL-bB7GALAwCpg=PA105. 2. ^ Liptak, Bela G. (2006). Instrument Engineers Handbook: Process control and optimization. 2. CRC Press. pp. 11–12. http://books. google. com/books? id=TxKynbyaIAMC=PA11.