Essay - 897 Words

We, as humans, have come a long way in terms of tools. We started out using rocks, sticks, and simple things found in nature. Now we use heavy, complex machinery and synthetic plastics to generate and design anything we could possibly think of. In an effort to understand the ways of earlier humans differently, I was tasked with researching and creating a tool using the methods from prehistory. In this ethnography, I will be describing the tool that I made, explaining modern tools in today’s society, and speculating how I would fair in prehistoric times. For our class activity last week, I decided to make a spoon out of an old piece of bone. In my research, I discovered that in early cultures, people would remove the larger bones from the†¦show more content†¦I wanted to be as authentic as possible, so I stuck to my backyard and I only gathered materials that were completely natural. I only used things that could be found in nature alone. I spent a couple hours in clas s and then for the next few days continued to work on it. It was difficult for me to figure out how to actually make this idea work. And once I did figure out how to move forward and do the steps I had a few issues with actually figuring out how to carry them out in an efficient and successful way.I am part of a generation where it has always been if you need something then you simply drive to a store and buy it premade, all wrapped up in a little plastic package. So to have to figure out a way to create something that I needed instead of just going and buying it was different for me. Next, I took a look and tried to gain a new perspective from the modern tools that we use everyday. Most of their names describe exactly what their primary functions are. For example a hammer is used to hammer things in and a screwdriver is used to drive in screw. We use a lot of different tools. Each of our tools are specialized and usually only have two main functions at most. If we compare that to prehistoric times it seems almost like a waste of materials. For instance you can use a rock for many different actions including, but not limited to: scraping, hammering, skinning, killing, and carving. Ultimately, I am not entirely sure how I would fairShow MoreRelatedWhat Is an Essay?1440 Words   |  6 PagesBuscemi Essay #3 Rough Draft An essay is a creative written piece in which the author uses different styles such as diction, tone, pathos, ethos or logos to communicate a message to the reader using either a personal experience, filled with morals and parables, or a informative text filled with educational terms. Educational terms could mean the usage of complicated and elevated words or simply information you would get in schools. 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I love how persuasive essays have a call-to-action; giving the readers aRead MoreEnglish Composition One: To Be an Essay or Not to Be an Essay That Is the Question910 Words   |  4 Pages In the past, the mention to have to write a paper for an assignment caused me to break out in a sweat or my mouth instantly dries, well it does not have that kind of effect on me anymore. The key to successfully completing the essay on time is getting to researc h the topic at hand as soon as possible or before the process of writing begins. The next step for me would be to find the argument and take a side. Moreover, picking a thesis statement through brainstorming the information I gathered forRead More Flight Essay834 Words   |  4 Pages Essay on quot;Flightquot; amp;#9;It is always hard to get separated from someone you love and with whom you have shared every moment of his life until he decides to walk on a different path than yours. You dont know how to react and confusion dominates your mind. 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Analysis of Immanuel Kants Arguements in The...

In the essay titled â€Å"Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals† published in the Morality and Moral Controversies course textbook, Immanuel Kant argues that the view of the world and its laws is structured by human concepts and categories, and the rationale of it is the source of morality which depends upon belief in the existence of God. In Kant’s work, categorical imperative was established in order to have a standard rationale from where all moral requirements derive. Therefore, categorical imperative is an obligation to act morally, out of duty and good will alone. In Immanuel Kant’s writing human reason and or rational are innate morals which are responsible for helping human. Needless to say, this also allows people to be able to†¦show more content†¦Freedom of the will can never be disproven or proven because will is influenced by the force outside of the human body and humans use reason to determine the law themselves. Rational people recogni ze themselves as free according to the categorical imperative. Though I found myself sometimes disagreeing with the philosophy by Immanuel Kant, I found his subjective reasoning to be thought-provoking. I was pulled by two different forces after Kant defined happiness as â€Å"the state of a rational being in the world in the whole of whose existence everything goes according to his wish and will.† This unconventional way of defining term of happiness strands away from the definition of happiness written by philosopher in the name of John Stuart Mill. Mill defines happiness as a state of â€Å"maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain.† In the writing, Immanuel argues that possession of wealth, health, or bravery can be used for afflicted purposes and these characteristics cannot be essentially good. To Kant, being worthy of happiness requires for one to possess a good will. The genuine good is the only unconditional good which is connected to a good will. Disastrous misfortunes can happen but the goodness of the will still remains. In this described above idea Immanuel provides a concrete support. According to my interpretation of the author’s idea and supporting statements, each day my actions consequentially are moderately influenced by Kant’s philosophy. I also believe that

Database Final Exam Free Essays

1. (Chapter 06): Describe a relational DBMS (RDBMS), its underlying data model, data storage structures, and manner of establishing data relationships: a. A relational DBMS (or RDMBS) is a data management system that implements a relational data model, one where data are stored in a collection of tables and the data relationships are represented by common valves, not links. We will write a custom essay sample on Database Final Exam or any similar topic only for you Order Now Pg. 247 b. Data are stored in a collection of tables and the data relationships are represented by common values not links. String| CARACTER (CHAR)CHARACTER VARYING (VARCHAR or VARCHAR2)BINARY LARGE OBJECT (BLOB)| Stores string values containing any character in a character set. CHAR is defined to be a fixed length. Stores string values containing any characters in a character set but of definable variable length. Stores binary string values in hexadecimal format. BLOB is defined to be a variable length. (Oracle also has CLOB and NCLOB, as well as BFILE for storing unstructured data outside the database. )| Number| NUMERICINTERGER(INT)| Stores exact numbers with a defined precision and scale. Stores exact numbers with a predefined precision and scale of zero| Temporal| TIMESTAMPTIMESTAMP WITH LOCAL TIME ZON| Stores a moment an event occurs, using a definable fraction-of-a-second precision. Value adjusted to the user’s session time zone (available in Oracle and MySQL)| Boolean| BOOLEAN| Stores truth values: TRUE, FALSE or UNKNOWN| c. The relational data model assumes that you have completed the activity ‘An ER Model d. The power of the RDBMS is realized through†¦. The relationship existing between the tables. The relationships are established by including common column or columns in every table where a relationship is needed. . (Chapter 06): What are six potential benefits of achieving an SQL standard? Pg. 245-246 a. Reduce training cost b. Productivity c. Application portability d. Application longevity e. Reduce dependence on a single vendor f. Cross-system communication 3. (Chapter 07): Define each of the following key terms: a. Dynamic SQL: Specific S QL code generated on the fly while an application is processing. Pg. 326 b. Correlated subquery: Use the result of the outer query to determine the processing of the inner query. Pg. 303 c. Embedded SQL: Hard-coded SQL statements included in a program written in another language, such as C or Java. Pg. 323 d. Procedure: A collection of procedural and SQL statements that are assigned a unique name within the schema and stored in the database. Pg. 323 e. Join: A relational operation that causes two tables with a common domain to be combined into a single table or view. Pg. 290 f. Equi-join: A join in which the joining condition is based on equality between vales in the common columns. Common columns appear (redundantly) in the result table. P 291 g. Self-join: There are times when a join requires matching rows in a table with other rows in that same table – that is, joining table with itself. Pg. 297 . Outer join: A join in which rows that do not have matching values in common columns are nevertheless included in the result table. Pg. 293 i. Function: A stored subroutine that returns one value and has only input parameters. Pg323 j. Persistent Stored Modules (SQL/PSM): Extensions defined in SQL:1999 that include the capability to create and drop modules of code stored in t he database schema across user sessions. Pg. 319 4. (Chapter 07): Write the SQL Query needed to: Display CourseID and CourseName for all courses in the Course Table where the CourseID has an ‘ISM’ prefix: Query: SELECT [CourseTable]. CourseID, [CourseTable]. CourseName FROM CourseTable WHERE((([CourseTable]. CourseID)=†ISM†)); 5. (Chapter 08): What are the advantages/disadvantages of two-tier architectures? Pg. 339 An advantage of two-tier architecture The advantage of the two-tier design is its simplicity. The TopLink database session that builds the two-tier architecture provides all the TopLink features in a single session type, thereby making the two-tier architecture simple to build and use. A disadvantage of the two-tier architecture is The most important limitation of the two-tier architecture is that it is not scalable, ecause each client requires its own database session. * 6. (Chapter 08): What are six common steps to access databases? Pg. 340 * a. Identify and register a database driver b. Open a connection to a database c. Execute a query against the database d. Process the results of a query e. Repeat step 3-4 as necessary f. Close the connection to the database * * * 7. (Chapter 09): Wha t are the three major components of Data Warehouse architecture? Pg. 389 a. Operational data are stored in the various operational systems of record throughout the organization (and sometimes in external systems). . Reconciled data are the type of data stored in the enterprise data warehouse and an operational data stored. c. Derived data are the type of data stored in each of the data marts. * * 8. (Chapter 09): What are the four characteristics of a data warehouse? a. Subject Orientation: Data organized by subject b. Integration: Consistency of defining parameters c. Non-volatility: Stable data storage medium d. Time-variance: Timeliness of data and access terms * 9. (Chapter 09): What are the five claimed limitations of independent data marts? Pg. 384 . A separate ETL process is developed for each data mart, which can yield costly redundant data and processing efforts. b. Data marts may not be consistent with one another because they are often developed with different technologie s, and thus they may not provide a clear enterprise-wide view of data concerning important subjects such as customers, suppliers, and products. c. There is no capability to drill down into greater detail or into related facts in other data marts or a shared data repository, so analysis is limited, or at best very difficult. . Scaling costs are excessive because every new application that creates a separate data mart repeats all the extract and load steps. e. if there is an attempt to make the separate data marts consistent, the cost to do so is quite high. * 10. (Chapter 09): What are the three types of operations that can be easily performed with OLAP tools? Pg. 214-215 a. Relational OLAP (ROLAP) –Star Schema based b. Multidimensional OLAP (MOLAP) –Cube based c. Hybrid OLAP (HOLAP) * 11. (Chapter 10): What are the four key components of a data governance program? Pg. 435 . Sponsorship from both senior management and business units b. A data steward manager to support, train, and coordinate the data stewards c. Data stewards for different business units, data subjects, source systems, or combinations of these elements d. A governance committee, headed by one person, but composed of data steward managers, executives and senior vice presidents, IT leadership and others business leaders, to set strategic goals, coordinate activities, and provide guidelines and standards for all data management activities. * * 12. Chapter 10): What are the four ways that data capture processes can be improved to improve data quality? According to Inmon (2004), there are several actions that can be taken at the original data capture step: Pg. 441 a. Enter as much of the data as possible via automatic, not human, means (e. g. , from data stored in a smart card or pulled from a database, such as retrieving current values for addresses, account numbers, and other personal characteristics). b. Where data must be entered manually, ensure that it is selected from preset opt ions (e. . , drop-down menus of selections pulled from the database), if possible. c. Use trained operators when possible (help systems and good prompts/examples can assist end users in proper data entry). d. Follow good user interface design principles that create consistent screen layouts, easy to follow navigation paths, clear data entry masks and formats (which can be defined in DDL), minimal use of obscure codes can be looked up and displayed from the database, not in the application programs), etc. . Immediately check entered data for quality against data in the database, so use triggers and user-defined procedures liberally to make sure that only high-quality data enter the database; wen questionable data are entered (e. g. , â€Å"T for gender), immediate and understandable feedback should be given to the operator, questioning the validity of the data. How to cite Database Final Exam, Papers

Digital Image Processing free essay sample

Digital signal processor [edit] Typical characteristics Digital signal processing algorithms typically require a large number of mathematical operations to be performed quickly and repetitively on a set of data. Signals (perhaps from audio or video sensors) are constantly converted from analog to digital, manipulated digitally, and then converted again to analog form, as diagrammed below. Many DSP applications have constraints on latency; that is, for the system to work, the DSP operation must be completed within some fixed time, and deferred (or batch) processing is not viable. A simple digital processing system Most general-purpose microprocessors and operating systems can execute DSP algorithms successfully, but are not suitable for use in portable devices such as mobile phones and PDAs because of power supply and space constraints. A specialized digital signal processor, however, will tend to provide a lower-cost solution, with better performance, lower latency, and no requirements for specialized cooling or large batteries. The architecture of a digital signal processor is optimized specifically for digital signal processing. Most also support some of the features as an applications processor or microcontroller, since signal processing is rarely the only task of a system. Some useful features for optimizing DSP algorithms are outlined below. [edit] Architecture By the standards of general purpose processors, DSP instruction sets are often highly irregular. One implication for software architecture is that hand-optimized assembly is commonly packaged into libraries for re-use, instead of relying on unusually advanced compiler technologies to handle essential algorithms. Hardware features visible through DSP instruction sets commonly include: †¢Hardware modulo addressing, allowing circular buffers to be implemented without having to constantly test for wrapping. †¢A memory architecture designed for streaming data, using DMA extensively and expecting code to be written to know about cache hierarchies and the associated delays. †¢Driving multiple arithmetic units may require memory architectures to support several accesses per instruction cycle †¢Separate rogram and data memories (Harvard architecture), and sometimes concurrent access on multiple data busses †¢Special SIMD (single instruction, multiple data) operations †¢Some processors use VLIW techniques so each instruction drives multiple arithmetic units in parallel †¢Special arithmetic operations, such as fast multiply-accumulates (MACs). Many fundamental DSP algorithms, such as FIR filters or the Fast Fourier transform (FFT) depend heavily on multiply-accumulate performance. Bit-reversed addressing, a special addressing mode useful for calculating FFTs †¢Special loop controls, such as architectural support for executing a few instruction words in a very tight loop without overhead for instruction fetches or exit testing †¢Deliberate exclusion of a memory management unit. DSPs frequently use multi-tasking operating systems, but have no support for virtual memory or memory protection. Operating systems that use virtual memory require more time for context switching among processes, which increases latency. edit] Program flow †¢Floating-point unit integrated directly into the datapath †¢Pipelined architecture †¢Highly parallel multiplier–accumulators (MAC units) †¢Hardware-controlled looping, to reduce or eliminate the overhead required for looping operations [edit] Memory architecture †¢DSPs often use special memory architectures that are able to fetch multiple data and/or instructions at the same ti me: oHarvard architecture oModified von Neumann architecture †¢Use of direct memory access †¢Memory-address calculation unit edit] Data operations †¢Saturation arithmetic, in which operations that produce overflows will accumulate at the maximum (or minimum) values that the register can hold rather than wrapping around (maximum+1 doesnt overflow to minimum as in many general-purpose CPUs, instead it stays at maximum). Sometimes various sticky bits operation modes are available. †¢Fixed-point arithmetic is often used to speed up arithmetic processing †¢Single-cycle operations to increase the benefits of pipelining [edit] Instruction sets Multiply-accumulate (MAC, aka fused multiply-add, FMA) operations, which are used extensively in all kinds of matrix operations, such as convolution for filtering, dot product, or even polynomial evaluation (see Horner scheme) †¢Instructions to increase parallelism: SIMD, VLIW, superscalar architecture †¢Specialized instructions for modulo addressing in ring buffers and bit-reversed addressing mode for FFT cross-referencing †¢Digital signal processors sometimes use time-stationary encoding to simplify hardware and increase coding efficiency. [edit] History Prior to the advent of stand-alone DSP chips discussed below, most DSP applications were implemented using bit-slice processors. The AMD 2901 bit-slice chip with its family of components was a very popular choice. There were reference designs from AMD, but very often the specifics of a particular design were application specific. These bit slice architectures would sometimes include a peripheral multiplier chip. Examples of these multipliers were a series from TRW including the TDC1008 and TDC1010, some of which included an accumulator, providing the requisite multiply-accumulate (MAC) function. In 1978, Intel released the 2920 as an analog signal processor. It had an on-chip ADC/DAC with an internal signal processor, but it didnt have a hardware multiplier and was not successful in the market. In 1979, AMI released the S2811. It was designed as a microprocessor peripheral, and it had to be initialized by the host. The S2811 was likewise not successful in the market. In 1980 the first stand-alone, complete DSPs – the NEC  µPD7720 and ATT DSP1 – were presented at the International Solid-State Circuits Conference 80. Both processors were inspired by the research in PSTN telecommunications. The Altamira DX-1 was another early DSP, utilizing quad integer pipelines with delayed branches and branch prediction. The first DSP produced by Texas Instruments (TI), the TMS32010 presented in 1983, proved to be an even bigger success. It was based on the Harvard architecture, and so had separate instruction and data memory. It already had a special instruction set, with instructions like load-and-accumulate or multiply-and-accumulate. It could work on 16-bit numbers and needed 390 ns for a multiply-add operation. TI is now the market leader in general-purpose DSPs. Another successful design was the Motorola 56000. About five years later, the second generation of DSPs began to spread. They had 3 memories for storing two operands simultaneously and included hardware to accelerate tight loops, they also had an addressing unit capable of loop-addressing. Some of them operated on 24-bit variables and a typical model only required about 21 ns for a MAC (multiply-accumulate). Members of this generation were for example the AT DSP16A or the Motorola DSP56001. The main improvement in the third generation was the appearance of application-specific units and instructions in the data path, or sometimes as coprocessors. These units allowed direct hardware acceleration of very specific but complex mathematical problems, like the Fourier-transform or matrix operations. Some chips, like the Motorola MC68356, even included more than one processor core to work in parallel. Other DSPs from 1995 are the TI TMS320C541 or the TMS 320C80. The fourth generation is best characterized by the changes in the instruction set and the instruction encoding/decoding. SIMD extensions were added, VLIW and the superscalar architecture appeared. As always, the clock-speeds have increased, a 3 ns MAC now became possible. [edit] Modern DSPs Modern signal processors yield greater performance; this is due in part to both technological and architectural advancements like lower design rules, fast-access two-level cache, (E)DMA circuitry and a wider bus system. Not all DSPs provide the same speed and many kinds of signal processors exist, each one of them being better suited for a specific task, ranging in price from about US$1. 0 to US$300 Texas Instruments produce the C6000 series DSP’s, which have clock speeds of 1. 2 GHz and implement separate instruction and data caches. They also have an 8 MiB 2nd level cache and 64 EDMA channels. The top models are capable of as many as 8000 MIPS (instructions per second), use VLIW (very long instruction word), perform eight operations per clock-cycle and are compatible with a broad range of external periphera ls and various buses (PCI/serial/etc). TMS320C6474 chips each have three such DSPs, and the newest generation C6000 chips support floating point as well as fixed point processing. Freescale produce a multi-core DSP family, the MSC81xx. The MSC81xx is based on StarCore Architecture processors and the latest MSC8144 DSP combines four programmable SC3400 StarCore DSP cores. Each SC3400 StarCore DSP core has a clock speed of 1 GHz. Analog Devices produce the SHARC-based DSP and range in performance from 66 MHz/198 MFLOPS (million floating-point operations per second) to 400 MHz/2400 MFLOPS. Some models support multiple multipliers and ALUs, SIMD instructions and audio processing-specific components and peripherals. The Blackfin family of embedded digital signal processors combine the features of a DSP with those of a general use processor. As a result, these processors can run simple operating systems like ? CLinux, velOSity and Nucleus RTOS while operating on real-time data. NXP Semiconductors produce DSPs based on TriMedia VLIW technology, optimized for audio and video processing. In some products the DSP core is hidden as a fixed-function block into a SoC, but NXP also provides a range of flexible single core media processors. The TriMedia media processors support both fixed-point arithmetic as well as floating-point arithmetic, and have specific instructions to deal with complex filters and entropy coding. Most DSPs use fixed-point arithmetic, because in real world signal processing the additional range provided by floating point is not needed, and there is a large speed benefit and cost benefit due to reduced hardware complexity. Floating point DSPs may be invaluable in applications where a wide dynamic range is required. Product developers might also use floating point DSPs to reduce the cost and complexity of software development in exchange for more expensive hardware, since it is generally easier to implement algorithms in floating point. Generally, DSPs are dedicated integrated circuits; however DSP functionality can also be produced by using field-programmable gate array chips (FPGA’s). Embedded general-purpose RISC processors are becoming increasingly DSP like in functionality. For example, the ARM Cortex-A8 and the OMAP3 processors include a Cortex-A8 and C6000 DSP. [edit] See also †¢Digital signal controller [edit] References 1. ^ Yovits, Marshall C. (1993). Advances in computers. 37. Academic Press. pp. 105–107. http://books. google. com. sg/books? id=vL-bB7GALAwCpg=PA105. 2. ^ Liptak, Bela G. (2006). Instrument Engineers Handbook: Process control and optimization. 2. CRC Press. pp. 11–12. http://books. google. com/books? id=TxKynbyaIAMC=PA11.

7 Ways to Determine the Person to Provide You with Professional Academic Writing

7 Ways to Determine the Person to Provide You with Professional Academic Writing 7 Ways to Determine the Person to Provide You with Professional Academic Writing The life of a student can be overwhelming. Suddenly, you have more tasks to do, and less time to for them. You haven’t been getting enough sleep and you’ve been neglecting social time with friends. You’ve finally decided that it’s time to hire a professional writer to help you with your academic paper. Unfortunately, you may find that seeking out and hiring the right professional writer is almost as much work as writing the paper yourself! The Internet turns up pages of results when you are looking for a professional academic writer. You’re probably wondering how you can narrow them down. And how do you know which ones are reputable, and which will just take your money and supply you with a low-quality work? We’re here to make this task easier for you. Here are the things that you need to look at while seeking out someone to help you with professional academic writing. 1. A College Degree It’s not hard to post something online that declares you as a professional writer. Anyone can do that. And while a college degree does not automatically mean that someone is a good writer, you do want someone who is well versed in the requirements of academia and can prove that he/she has already mastered them. 2. Certifications Most professional writers have engaged in some kind of advanced coursework or have taken on challenges that resulted in awards or certificates. Don’t hesitate to ask candidates whether they have any of these. 3. Samples There is no more genuine proof of what a writer can do than actual samples of his/her works. It’s easy for anyone to tell you what they have accomplished, but more impressive if they can actually show them to you. 4. Curiosity Always ask the candidate whether they have any questions due to the job. If they don’t, that should be a red flag. A candidate who has no thoughts or ideas about the project probably sees it as nothing more than a quick way to make a few bucks. You want someone who actually cares about the work and asks questions to determine how to accomplish it. 5. Ability to Meet Deadlines Let’s face it: you’re hiring the person purposely because you have some difficulties meeting your deadlines. If they can’t accomplish this most basic requirement, nothing else really matters. If possible, talk to other clients of this particular writer and find out how timely he/she is in completing tasks. 6. Guaranteed Originality It’s easy to copy something from a website or use a paper that was previously used by another student. Hey, you could even do that yourself. But, with the prevalence of plagiarism detecting software, you can’t afford this kind of rookie mistake. Make sure that your candidate can guarantee 100% original work. 7. Clear and Fair Payment Terms The terms of your contract should be clearly stated up front. There should be no ambiguity about the deadlines or the price. Verify how the writer expects to be paid: by the hour, by the word, or by the essay? You must clearly understand his terms so you won’t get any surprises. Also be wary of writers who demand that you pay them before they have done any work. Payment should be rendered only after you get tangible results. Take these as your guide, and there is no doubt that you will find a writer who can be a great support to you.

Identifing the North American Gums

Identifing the North American Gums The tupelos, or sometimes called pepperidge tree, are members of a small genus called Nyssa. There are only about 9 to 11 species worldwide. They are known to grow in mainland China and eastern Tibet and North America. The North American tupelo has alternate, simple leaves and the fruit is a single drupe containing seed. These seed capsules float and are distributed over major wetland areas where the tree regenerates. Water tupelo is especially adept at seed dispersal along waterways. Most, especially water tupelo, are highly tolerant of wet soils and flooding, some needing to grow in such environments to ensure future regeneration. Only two important species are native to eastern North America and none live naturally in the Western states. Black Tupelo or Nyssa sylvatica is the most common true gum in North America and grows from Canada to Texas. Another common tree that is called a gum is sweetgum and is actually an entirely different tree species classification called Liquidambar. The fruit and leaves of sweetgum look nothing like these true gums. Water tupelo or Nyssa aquatica is a wetland tree living mostly along the coastal plain from Texas to Virginia. Water tupelos range reaches far up the Mississippi River to southern Illinois. It is most often found in swamps and near perennial wet areas and a companion tree to baldcypress. Tupelos are highly valued honey plants in the Southeastern and Gulf Coast states, producing a very light, mild-tasting honey. In northern Florida, beekeepers keep beehives along the river swamps on platforms or floats during tupelo bloom to produce certified tupelo honey, which commands a high price on the market because of its flavor. Interesting Facts About Gums Black gum can be a slow grower but does best on moist, acid soils. Still, its persistence in cultivation can make for one of the most beautiful fall red leaf colors. Purchase a proven cultivar for the best results including Sheffield Park, Autumn Cascade and Bernheim Select. The water tupelo is also called cotton gum for its cottony new growth. It is just as hearty on wetland as baldcypress and ranked as one of the most flood-tolerant tree species in North America. This gum can become huge and sometimes exceed 100 feet in height. The tree can, like baldcypress, grow a grand basal trunk buttress. One species that I have not listed here is the Ogeechee gum that grows in parts of South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida. It is of little commercial value and has a limited range. The Gum Tree List Black Tupelo GumWater Tupelo Leaves: alternate, simple, not toothed.Bark: deeply furrowed.Fruit: elliptical berry.

Solar renewable energy Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Solar renewable energy - Research Paper Example Solar energy is the energy that comes from the sun in the solar radiation form which is used in heating or generation of electricity. To generate electricity using solar powered electricity generation system, one requires using photovoltaic or heat engines known as concentrated solar power. Some of the most common solar applications include solar cooling using solar architecture, lighting, heating of the space, solar cooking, high temperature industrial process heating and solar water heating application among others. There exists a broader solar technology classification into active and passive solar which depends on how they are captured. The practice that uses photovoltaic panels and thermal collectors to harness the solar energy is referred to as active technique while the technique that orientates the building to the sun, selects materials that possess good thermal mass or favorable light dispersing properties and design light pathways that circulates air naturally, is known as a passive technique.By the year 2100, the world population will be in excess of twelve billion people. This will push subsequently push the world’s energy requirement to be five times the current demand if the technological progress and innovation keep up with its current trend. If the current rate with which we utilize coal, gas and oil continues, the global temperature will increase by two degrees Celsius by 2020. This will cause adverse effects such as increased flooding in the lowland areas., desertification and climate change all over the world. While it is known for a fact that renewable energy contributes to only 11% of our primary energy consumption in the world today, and we really want to do something to save our planet, then this renewable energy must form part of our daily energy consumption. We are highly expecting that by 2070, 60% of our energy will come from renewable energy. We need to employ the attitude that today is better than tomorrow and the sooner we d o that, the better to raise this figure by 20% so as to reach 80% by2070. According to one of the World Renewable Energy Network (WREN) journals, several bodies including the World Solar Summit, the World Bank and the World Solar Decade have come up in support of the projects dealing with the renewable energy and the environment conservation which can be seen by their recent over four billion dollar allocations towards the same. This can clearly show how important renewable energy is viewed from the face of the world as the new source of power for the future. This research therefore tries to discover the merits and demerits of the renewable energy and especially solar energy, the fundamental principles of renewable energy, how we try to apply science and technology in our efforts to conserve the environment as well as how we can carry out solar water heating in our efforts to go to renewable energy. Solar renewable energy (Fundamental principles of renewable energy) From the definitions of renewable and non-renewable energies, the fundamental differences can be pinpointed. Consequently, there must be a correct application of certain principles for

Toms Coffee Cup on the Verge of Imminent Collapse Essay

Toms Coffee Cup - on the Verge of Imminent Collapse - Essay Example It is upon the decisions and actions taken by business management that determines the success or failure of a business. This report will review Coffee Cup’s business strategy and the decisions that have led to its rapid deterioration as a result of the actions taken by its management. The report will provide recommendations at the end based on various principles of management such as planning, organizing and leading. This will in part borrow most of the information from the popular P-O-L-C framework of management. Through these recommendations, the management will certainly get back on course to revive this business. Coffee Cup is a sole proprietorship business owned by Tom. It started out as a coffee house although it has recently expanded its services to serving sandwiches and salads for lunch and smoothies for breakfast. Tom started the business after leaving his corporate job and has enjoyed fair success as a first-time entrepreneur. The business currently has 12 employees after Tom employed Willie Cheet to fill up the position of the manager. Willie is the only salaried employee in the business with the rest being paid on an hourly-rate basis. The business has seen numerous changes since Willie took up the management position and the business is facing a possible collapse due to his selfish management decisions aimed at increasing his earnings. As earlier mentioned, Coffee Cup is experiencing several challenges that are emanating from Willie’s high-handed style of leadership which has seen the business adopt various changes in products quality and quantity. Willie has also introduced strict and somehow irrational rules in the workplace that have affected the morale of the workers thereby leading to reduced productivity and loss of cooperation from a section of them. The effects of these management challenges have seen an increase in complaints from customers and consequently a drastic reduction in sales.  

Discovering sustainable success Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Discovering sustainable success - Essay Example From the lecture it is easier to know what to expect at the University and what is suitable for my interests. I also learnt that the University is not there only as a business, but it is a place where students can get broader social and cultural experiences. In addition, it creates and promotes the idea of an institution without borders. Sustainability is a key source of competitive disadvantage because there are more societal expectations for all. The speakers in the video also show that there exists a connection between what students at the institution do in class or the research labs and what they experience once they are in the job market. This makes it easier for any potential student to understand what is required of them. The lecture also shows some of the most effective ways that a student in a University can acquire skills and make use of these skills is not only within the institution, but in other settings. The skills are applicable in other settings such as home or at

Impact Of External Influences on Consumer-Decision Making

Impact Of External Influences on Consumer-Decision Making Consumer behaviour is a steady ambiguity and even though there has been some achievements in planning consumers behaviours, sometimes we just dont know how things going on and how some factors drives one consumer may not drive another. Sometimes Organisations took corrective measures for consumers motivations and sometimes they do not. Which have a real impact on the financial success of the organisation . The target of this report is to answer the following critical factors: 1. Impact of the external variables which are used by marketers during the various stages of the consumer decision-making process . 2. Evaluation of a specific consumer behavioural theory or model for the understanding of the consumers and the implementation of the marketing strategy for the organisation. Consumers are faced with the need to make decisions about products and services all the time. Some of them are very important and entail great effort, while others are made more or less automatically. Perspectives on decision-making range from a focus on habits, age, income, personality, level of education and tasks. Task 1 Impact Of External Influences At Various Stages Of The Consumer-Decision Making Used By Marketers Introduction In this era of rivalry, indulgent the consumer is very important for marketers. Consumer desires and preferences are constantly varying, given the changes in factors like their demographics and lifestyles. These changes can bring great business opportunities for attentive marketers and threats for marketers who fail to become accustomed. Consumers obtain, devour, consume and dispose off the products and services created by organizations. They went through a number of cognitive and behavioural processes whilst making their purchases and spending on decisions. This information is also vital to make a variety of business decisions associated with product development, packaging, pricing, distribution, promotions, communication, etc. According to Solomon, et al., (2010) consumer decision making is a central part of consumer behaviour. Typically the buyer decision process takes place in five stages. These stages are essential for a consumer in making purchases on a conscious or a subconscious level. Consumer Behaviour helps to comprehend the external variables like reference groups, family, social class, and, culture, and their influence on consumer decision-making process. Consumers are faced with many external influences, including an individuals culture, subculture, household structure, and groups that he associates with. Marketers and business owners call these external influences because the source of the influence comes from outside the person rather than from inside. Need/Problem Recognition: According to Solomon. M, Problem recognition occurs whenever the consumers sees a significant differences between the current situations and some desired or ideal state. During this stage marketers have to create need by using the different external variables. Example: Marketers are using advertisement as in Kelloggs advertisement marketers focusing on the girls by showing an female athlete to be slim and smart. So marketers using external variables of sub-culture (gender) and opinion leader for developing a need by solving their problem of getting smart. Information Search According to Solomon. M, it is the process by which consumer surveys their environment for suitable data to make a realistic decisions. Different information sources available by using internal and external search. But according to marketers point of view, external variables such as family friends opinion leaders, reference group and culture etc Example: Pharmaceutical organizations like GSK uses consultants or top level medical professionals (opinion leaders, reference group) for their products by arranging seminars, meetings and TV shows to give information about their products in particular disease the rest of their followers agreed . Because opinion leaders or reference group have adopted them after the completing all information search. Evaluation Of Alternatives According to Solomon. M, it is the stage in which a choice must be made by the available alternatives. The product alternatives a person considered comprise their evoked set. Members usually share some features of evoked set. Marketers always like their products in evoked set of consumers.According to surveys consumers often include a small number of product in their evoked set. Example: Coca cola is using Santa Clause as brand ambassador in UK. In Christmas days, marketing of coke revolves around the Santa Clause because of their cultural influence as an alternative against the different competitors especially Pepsi. Consumers evaluate the product when they go for alternatives but after the strong marketing influence for their evoked set as well they go for Coke as the main drink. Product Choice/Purchase According to Solomon. M, after the evaluation of alternatives, decision rules guiding choice can range from very simple and quick strategy to complicated processes requiring much attention and cognitive processing. Marketers play a role in educating consumers about which criteria should be used and for this purpose they use external variables for consumer decision making. Example: Marketers use friends and family members and reference group as external variables for their promotions. Like mobile phone companies i.e. Three in UK use this tool as their marketing policy and offer their loyal customers different opportunities by referring new consumers and give them discounts as well. Post-Purchase Behaviour According to Solomon. M, post-purchase behaviour involves all the consumers activities and the experiences that follow the purchase. Satisfaction is important after purchase because, usually it cost more to attract new consumer than to retain an existing. Marketers can use external variables to improve the consumers post purchase decisions to maintain their loyalty. Companies use guarantee, return policy and after sales services for the customer satisfaction. For example in UK different online and high street retail companies have all the customer satisfaction programmes to maintain their customer loyal to them in all circumstances. Like Tesco, Asda, Amazone, etc. Conclusion In the above report, I discussed all the five stages of consumer decision making in the light of external variables for marketing perspective. As consumer behaviour is affected by different external variables like culture, sub-culture, friends and family, reference group, demographics, opinion leaders and economical environment. Marketers develop different strategies to influence consumers and try to evoke them for their decision making to buy a specific products or services. Task 2 In Nokia PLC, How Maslows hierarchy of need can aid in understanding consumers actions and its practical implemention of marketing strategy in Nokia. Introdution Nokia is the top selling brand in the mobile phone market of the world. In this report I am going to explain the Maslows heirarchy of needs for the understanding of consumers actions and the marketing strategies for the future of the company. Maslows Hierarchy Of Need According to Solmon, M, Maslow formulated a hierarchy of biogenic and psycogenic needs, in which certain levels of motives are specified. Following are 5 steps of Maslows hierarchy of need and according to Maslow, 1 level must be attained before the next level. Physiological : According to Maslow, main aim of the individuals is to fulfill the basic needs food, water,shelter and warmth. After getting their basic needs individuals go for the next stage.Therefore physiological needs are must to obtain other above stages of need. Implementation Of Physiological Needs In Marketing Strategy Of Nokia PLC In the era of fastest growing smart phone market, Nokia is becoming the brand leader due to their range of mobiles. As nokia is the company offering the variety of mobiles for their consumrs which fulfill the basic needs of the consumers in a affordable price as the marketing strategy,which keep Nokia worlds largest selling mobile company.In this competitive environment and busy life mobile is the basic need for an individual so Nokia fullfill these basic needs by ranging their price for a common man to elite class as their marketing and promotional strategy. Security Needs Security is the next step according to Maslow, all consumers are basically worried about the after effects of any product or service which related to security,stability and freedom.If an individual have the basic physiological needs then they achieve this as well. Implementation Of Security Needs In Marketing Strategy Of Nokia PLC As Nokia is the well known company in the world of smart phones so consumer have the faith on them about the security of their basic needs and the stability of the product .In case of any probelm with the mobile Nokia provides full warranty fo their produts,free accessories and free repairs as their marketing strategy through which consumer get secured and proud to be Nokia customer. Social/Belonging Needs According to Maslow the next level of hierarchy are social needs, means friends and family,loveones and the communication between all individuals is a social need. According to Maslow this need will be only achieveable when the first two needs, physical and security are full filled. Implementation Of Social Need In Marketing Strategy Of Nokia PLC Nokia mobiles are very well recognized socially and fulfill all the social needs of the consumers thatswhy they very popular as users friendly in mobile market.Now a days where the social networking on internet made the world very small. Nokia mobiles offered all the features of the current scenario of smart phones by their marketing strategies to promote its product according to consumers demand. Self-Esteem Needs In Maslows hierarcy of needs, self-esteem followed by the physiological ,safety and belonging needs which means any individual feel his recognition, satisfation and achievement. For this consumers needs somewhat unique kind of products or services which feel them differnt in the society. Implementation Of Self-Esteem In Nokia PLC As Nokia is the largest phone company in the world and provide a large variety of mobiles. So according to Maslow for these kind of people Nokia introduce elite class mobiles in the consumers market,which are used as status symbol as their marketing strategy policy of place in this segment. Self-actualization According to Maslow, self actualisation is the last and the top level of hierarcy of needs.To full fill this criteria individual have their own set of principals to judge the product or service in the market.This last need is only achieveable if all other needs of the consumers are being full filled. Implementation Of Self-Actualization In Nokia PLC Nokia plc is using opinion leaders in their advertisements like Bruce Lee, Shakirra etc.so that people feel proud to have Nokia smart phones by using in the society to full fill their self actualization need. Nokia brands have a lot of variety of elite class smart phones with lot of applications free of cost for their loyal customer as their marketing strategy. For their promotional strategies they hire top celebrities in their advertisement to attract the consumers market to make them buy their products. Conclusion In the above report ,I discussed and explain the marketing implementations of the Maslows hierarchy of need, its all five stages accordinglly.How Nokia plc is using these needs to fullfill the consumer demands through applying the marketing strategies. In this Nokia plc is using all the 4Ps of marketing mix to creat the needs of the consumers and help the consumers in their decision making process. By using Maslows hierarchy of need theory, Nokia plc is able to saisfy their consumers demands and needs according to the market and attract more and more customers in the smart phone market of the world.

Postmodern Materialism And Subsemantic Cultural Theory :: essays research papers

Postmodern materialism and subsemantic cultural theory 1. Structuralist rationalism and the subcapitalist paradigm of reality In the works of Gibson, a predominant concept is the concept of patriarchialist truth. The primary theme of the works of Gibson is not narrative, but neonarrative. But the closing/opening distinction prevalent in Gibson's Neuromancer is also evident in Idoru, although in a more mythopoetical sense. Lyotard's model of subdialectic Marxism suggests that the significance of the poet is significant form. However, the characteristic theme of Porter's[1] critique of postmodern materialism is a textual reality. Foucault suggests the use of subsemantic cultural theory to analyse and read sexual identity. 2. Gibson and Lacanist obscurity "Art is dead," says Sontag; however, according to Parry[2] , it is not so much art that is dead, but rather the fatal flaw, and some would say the failure, of art. Therefore, Marx uses the term 'the subcapitalist paradigm of reality' to denote the role of the reader as participant. Any number of deappropriations concerning postmodern materialism may be discovered. In the works of Smith, a predominant concept is the distinction between creation and destruction. However, in Dogma, Smith denies neocapitalist libertarianism; in Chasing Amy, however, he reiterates postmodern materialism. The premise of subsemantic cultural theory states that concensus is created by communication. Thus, Werther[3] suggests that we have to choose between the subcapitalist paradigm of reality and the textual paradigm of narrative. If postmodern materialism holds, the works of Madonna are reminiscent of Joyce. In a sense, postsemiotic theory implies that class has intrinsic meaning, but only if the premise of postmodern materialism is valid; otherwise, Lyotard's model of the subcapitalist paradigm of reality is one of "cultural Marxism", and therefore part of the dialectic of sexuality. Marx promotes the use of subsemantic cultural theory to deconstruct hierarchy. However, Lacan's model of the subcapitalist paradigm of reality holds that consciousness is capable of intent. Von Junz[4] states that we have to choose between subsemantic cultural theory and Sontagist camp. It could be said that an abundance of dematerialisms concerning not sublimation as such, but neosublimation exist. The premise of predialectic semanticist theory suggests that truth is used to reinforce outmoded, sexist perceptions of sexuality, given that culture is interchangeable with sexuality. 3. Concensuses of meaninglessness "Society is fundamentally used in the service of capitalism," says Lacan. Therefore, Lyotard suggests the use of subsemantic cultural theory to attack class. The primary theme of the works of Madonna is a self-falsifying whole.

Manufacturing Information System Essay

A manufacturing information system that is targeted for use anywhere production is taking place. Modern manufacturing information systems are generally computerized and are designed to collect and present the data which managers need in order to plan and direct operations within the company. Capabilities of the System 1. The system is able to determine the cost of purchases related to production. 2. The system can also help in planning and scheduling the production based on the sales forecast. 3. This system can control the quantity of production as well as the monitoring of inventories. 4. This system is able to generate reports which will be sending to different department as their source of information. Scope and Limitations The system has limited its coverage on the manufacturing entity only. Its main purpose is to help the entity in planning and scheduling production. The system covered only the production processes and generation of reports wherein other department will get information. It will not be effective on selling and marketing purposes or in other department works. Significance of the Study 1. The system supports the production or operation function. 2. The system fastens all activities concerned with planning and control of process producing goods and services. 3. The beneficiary of the system is the entity itself. Entities Sales Department Accounting Department Warehouse Suppliers Delivering Department Step by Step Process 1. Collect Data- is the process of gathering data that can be used in planning production. 2. Analysis of Data- is a process of examining, cleaning, transforming, and modelling data into useful information and supporting decision making process. 1. Designing of Product 2. Determining inadequate raw materials 3. Sourcing of Raw Materials- It is the process of purchasing inadequate raw materials which are needed in the production and a prerequisite in scheduling production. 1. Make Order 2. Make Payments Production- it is the process of converting raw materials into other materials or finished goods that will be sell in the market. Generates Reports- making of essential reports about production that will be passed to another department for the formulation of financial statement and in order to know what portion of the finished goods are available for sale.

Freudian Defense Mechanisms essays

Freudian Defense Mechanisms essays Memory can be an accurate chronicler of past events, but is also vulnerable to loss and distortion.1 Forgetting usually occurs imperceptibly with the passing of time. Can people voluntarily forget information by wilfully suppressing it? Recent studies by Michael Anderson and Collin Green2 say "yes". These experiments have stimulated debate because the researchers suggest that their results may provide "a viable model" for Freud's much maligned theory of repression.3,4 Furthermore, the results have been linked5 to the disputed idea that people can repress and later recover memories of childhood sexual abuse.4,6 Anderson and Green used a carefully crafted experimental design to isolate the effects of voluntary suppression on tests of memory. Participants learned a list of 40 unrelated word pairs, such as "ordeal-roach" or "moss-north". They were then prompted with the first word of 30 of the pairs. For half of the items, participants were asked to respond with the second word of the pair; for the other half, they were instructed to suppress the word from conscious awareness. Then a final memory test was carried out. The researchers asked the participants to do their best to recall the second word of each pair when presented with the first word, regardless of the earlier instructions to suppress memory for some words. Participants recalled more words from the "respond" group than words from the "suppress" group. This finding alone might simply indicate that the recall of words from the "respond" group had improved because of practice, rather than revealing an impairment of recall for words in the "suppress" group. However, ten of the word pairs that had appeared only on the study list were used as control words. Fewer suppressed words than control words were recalled. This finding cannot be attributed to the practice of recalled words, and indicates that the recall of words from the "suppress" group was indeed impaired. The same outc...

The eNotes Blog Shelley Jacksons Skin Project A LivingNovella

Shelley Jacksons Skin Project A LivingNovella Shelley Jackson has always been an author to push the boundaries of genre and form. In the nineties, she broke ground as one of the first writers to experiment with hyperfiction, reaping high praise for Patchwork Girl,  a hypertext, Borgesian spin on Mary Shelleys  Frankenstein.  But I recently came across a project of hers that is even more daring, one that seeks to make her writing permanently inked: The Skin Project was launched in 2003. Jackson had a 2,095 word novella written, but as opposed to printing it on paper, she sought to present the story on the skin of many project volunteers. 2,095 volunteers, to be exact; one word for every person. Words were handed out to volunteers in the exact order in which they were written for the story, meaning participants had no say in what would be tattooed on their bodies. They could choose the site of their tattoo, with the caveat that words describing a body part could be anywhere on the body except for that named body part (not including the word skin, of course). In addition, the final story was disclosed only to these 2,095 participants, who have been sworn to secrecy. Jacksons idea behind this was to create a mortal work of art that could never be read in its proper order, but just exists, pulsing, out in the world at all times. In what seems to me an almost term of endearment, Jackson refers to the many participants in the project as words. She describes their role in the Skin Project, writing They are not understood as carriers or agents of the texts they bear, but as its embodiments. As a result, injuries to the printed texts, such as dermabrasion, laser surgery, tattoo cover work or the loss of body parts, will not be considered to alter the work. Only the death of words effaces them from the text. As words die the story will change; when the last word dies the story will also have died. The author will make every effort to attend the funerals of her words. A large number of Jacksons words will remain anonymous, but at least one is a fellow published author. The tattoo above right is on the forearm of none other than Rick Moody, writer of  The Ice Storm. We may not be permitted to read or know the finished work, but as with Egans twitterature feature Black Box, its exciting to see a new fiction form emerge. To see more of the words, you can also visit the Berkeley Art Museums Archive to watch the video Jackson assembled of 191 volunteers reading their words aloud, which was arranged into a new sub-Skin spoken word piece.

Econ 212G final essay Lee Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Econ 212G final Lee - Essay Example (SOURCE 1) This hypothesis by Charles Tiebout is not without many criticisms that were voiced against it and emanating from diverse sources of the field of economics. Probably, the most important of those (criticisms) is the fact that, the hypothesis is in total discord with the principle of equity. This principle emphatically states that equal opportunities of growth and prosperity need to be provided to all the people. And Tiebout Hypothesis is diametrically opposite to that, as it supports the presence of goods & services, and taxes, conforming to the monetary interests of a particular section of a province’s populace. The second criticism that has been leveled against the hypothesis is that, it has come to the assumption that people can conveniently keep moving between various zones, until they identify a province supporting their interests. The real life scenario is the testimony to the fact that, constant mobility for a substantial chunk of the population is not as easy as stated by Charles Tiebout. For most of the people, the financial implications of frequent travelling are beyond their means, not to mention the huge efforts and time involved in it. In a scenario pertinent to this model, as the number of people being benefitted by the goods and services registers a rapid increase, the rate of enhancement of related costs also displays a rapid rise. The obvious outcome of this being, a significant chunk of the province’s populace would be bogged down by the alarming high costs, and they would then resume their search for greener pastures (low cost zones). (SOURCE 1) Last but in no way the least, is the fact that the Tiebout Model fails to address the above-mentioned aspect of efficiency, from another angle. As the costs of goods and services display a rapid rise, it has been observed that many people would be compelled

Impending Extinction of Steelhead Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Impending Extinction of Steelhead - Essay Example This is attributed to human activities. Along with the scientific developments came the human population explosion. Hundreds of habitats are being destroyed to serve as agricultural or residential lands. Excessive harvesting of animal meat has led to the decline of reproducing population. Irresponsible disposal of garbage and chemicals has further narrowed life opportunities for organisms. This paper will explore on the reasons for impending extinction of the steelhead. It will also look at the measures taken by concerned entities in preventing this from happening. Our focus would be in the steelhead habitat in the Washington State. This paper is aimed at providing the reader knowledge of what is currently being done today to address the environmental problem. Steelheads are characterized by a dark-olive color, shading to silvery-white on the underside with a heavily speckled body and a pink to red stripe running along their sides. They can reach up to 55 pounds (25 kg) in weight and 45 inches (120 cm) in length. An adult female steelhead will prepare a redd (or nest) in a stream area with suitable gravel type composition, water depth, and velocity. It then deposits 4 to 5 eggs in "nesting pockets" within a single redd. The eggs hatch within 3 to 4 weeks. The juvenile steelhead ... It then deposits 4 to 5 eggs in "nesting pockets" within a single redd. The eggs hatch within 3 to 4 weeks. The juvenile steelhead rears in the freshwater for 1 to 4 years before migrating individually to the open ocean. It stays in the marine environment for 1 to 5 years after which it returns to the freshwater streams and rivers of their birth in order to mate. This process is called anadromy. Unlike other Pacific salmonids, steelheads can spawn more than once and will but will again migrate through estuaries to the ocean. Migrations can reach hundreds of miles as evidenced by a fish tagged in the Sea of Japan and caught six months thereafter in the Skagit River of northern Washington. Some streams host two runs of steelhead, a summer run (returning in summer and early fall and spawning in early to mid-winter) and a winter run (returning in early winter to late spring and spawning within this time frame). FOOD Young steelheads feed primarily on zooplankton. Adults feed on aquatic and terrestrial insects, mollusks, crustaceans, fish eggs, minnows and even other small fishes including other trout. PREDATORS: Fish, mammals, and birds are the primary natural predators of steelhead. Fish predators include the northern pike minnow, walleyes, and smallmouth bass, channel catfish, sculpins, white sturgeon and even some adult salmonids like adult bull trout, rainbow/steelhead trout, cutthroat trout, brook trout, and brown trout. Fish-eating birds present in the Upper Columbia Basin include great blue herons, gulls, osprey, common mergansers, American dippers, cormorants, Caspian terns, belted kingfishers, common loons, western grebes, black-crowned night herons and bald eagles. Mammalian

Leadership and communication culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Leadership and communication culture - Essay Example A dialogic communication is one whereby a two way communication path is followed and participants defend their opinion and thoughts with justified arguments and simultaneously listen to other positions as well with the intention to understand better (Habermas 1984). Isaacs (1999) has explored numerous meaning for the term ‘dialogue’. Dialogue is not merely a normal form of conversation or a talk, but, in broader sense, it is now being used as a tool for fostering organizational learning. Coordinated actions among members of the organization could be produced through dialogue. A dialogic communication culture can be highly effective for a firm, in incorporating and facilitating continuous and sustainable change within a firm. Dialogue can open up the limited or narrow approach to work practices that most of the organizational members uphold. Dialogues can bring improvement in existing ideas and help in developing creative futuristic approach as well. With the development of the dialogic communication, organization can completely transform its culture by imbibing spirit of commitment and inculcating onus of responsibility and accountability among the members of the organization. Leaders play a vital role by dealing with unavoidable and anticipated conflicts skillfully. Thereby, existing challenges and problems can be resolved through innovative breakthroughs and cooperation of the entire team force which can be acquired through influential dialogic culture (Novak & Sellnow 2009). Sellnow 2009). DIALOGIC COMMUNICATION PROMOTES BETTER UNDERSTANDING THROUGH CONSTRUCTIVE LEADERSHIP Sustainable change can be attained only when understanding among members can be enhanced. By supporting the statement that ‘dialogues can rejuvenate organizational culture and leader’s foster development of such culture’, a study performed by Innes (2007) can be analyzed whereby the significance of dialogic communication is revealed clearly. In this study, the essence of solving group problems is highlighted. Two groups of students were allotted case studies and specific problems. The solutions to the problem allotted were analyzed later. It was found that group that had better understanding amongst them focused on the specific issue assigned whereas group

Class in America Essay Example for Free

Class in America Essay Myth 1: The United States is fundamentally a classless society. Class distinctions are largely irrelevant today, and whatever differences do exist in economic standing, they are for the most part- insignificant Myth 2: We are, essentially, a middle-class nation Myth 3: We are all getting richer. The American public as a whole is steadily moving up the economic ladder, and each generation propels itself to greater economic well-being Myth 4: Everyone has an equal chance to succeed Reality 1: There are enormous differences in the economic standing of American citizens. A sizable proportion of the U.S. population occupies opposite ends of the economic spectrum. In the middle ranger of the economic spectrum: Sixty percent of the American population holds less than 6 percent of the nations wealth. Between 1979 and 2000, the gap in household income between the top fifth and middle fifth of the population by 31 percent. During the economic boom of the 19990s, four out of five Americans saw their share of net worth decline, while the top fifth saw their share increase from 59 percent to 63 percent. Reality 2: The middle class in the United States hold a very small share of the nations wealth and that share is declining steadily. The gap between rich and poor and between rich and the middle class is larger than it has even been. Reality 3: Class affects more than life-style and material well-being. It has significant impact on our physical and mental well-being as well. Researchers have found an inverse relationship between social class and health. Lower-class standing is correlated to higher rates of infant mortality, eye and ear disease, arthritis, physical disability, diabetes, nutritional deficiency, respiratory disease, mental illness, and heart disease Reality 4: From cradle to grave, the class standing has a significant impact on our chances for survival. Reality 5: Class standing has a significant impact on chances for educational achievement. Class standing, and consequently life chances, are largely determined at birth†¦ One study showed that fewer than one in five men surpass the economic status of their fathers. For those whose annual income is in six figures, economic success is due in large part to  the wealth and privileges bestowed on them at birth.† (Mantsios, Class in America- 2003) This article, the myths and realities Mantsios addresses show that in fact people in the United States do not have the simple, easy, freedom of just becoming rich and it is not just a matter of working hard to get there. The class system and the power of oppression keep citizens in the classes they are born into. One who is born into a lower class in the U.S. is at a constant disadvantage from birth. The statistics Mantsios uses illustrate the economic gap between the rich and the middle class and the rich and the poor in the United States- showing an increase in the gap: â€Å"the rich getting richer and the poor getting poorer.† The fact that laws and the class systems are acting as traps to keep the people in poverty, or at least keep them from becoming affluent, is a violent act. And as an even more literal act of violence, even though it isnt much of an act, the correlation between poverty and disease is outrageous. And so again, poverty is violence

Causes and Impact of Health Inequalities

Causes and Impact of Health Inequalities Background In todays world, the advancements in medical technology and its expansion have improved the overall health of the population. However, inequalities persist within health care and not all people have equal access to it. Why do these disparities still exist in the present day? Understanding why these inequalities exist despite modern advancements has a significant importance in reducing health care inequalities. Aim Understanding health care inequalities and its challenges are the aim of this assignment. It seeks to explain and understand the mechanisms underlying the associations that can be found between the socio-economic statuses of population groups and their quality of health. It also explores life course pathways which mould and influence a persons chances of having a healthy life along with advantages and disadvantages that can affect health from an early age into adulthood. In addition, other factors such as gender, mental illness and disability and ethnicity will also be discussed since they also have a major contribution to inequalities in health. The assignment will focus on research led in the United Kingdom (UK). The United Kingdoms long tradition of research on health inequalities The UK is a high-income society, where greater prosperity and better overall health have been successfully attained without narrowing health inequalities, it can therefore be taken as an example for other societies that manifest similar trends in inequalities (Graham, 2009). Health Inequalities Health inequalities are differences between people or groups due to social, geographical, biological or other factors. These differences have a huge impact, because they result in people who are worst off experiencing poorer health and shorter lives (NICE, 2012). Affordable health care During the 19th century, inequality in health was mostly due to factors such as overcrowding, insufficient availability to local treatment facilities and poor sanitation (Morning 2015). Nowadays, in our industrialized society, these disadvantages have essentially disappeared. Modern hospitals and treatment centres are now commonly accessible across the UK. But not everyone can afford treatment. A study led in 2004 has shown that wealth is correlated with longevity, which demonstrates a strong link between the socio-economic status and mortality. For example, Figure 1 exhibits a pattern of health across income groups in England in 2004. As seen below, the proportion of men and women who deem their health as not good increases from around 15 percent in the richest fifth of English households to around 40 percent in the poorest fifth of households. This significant rise is not only manifested in the majority white population but also in other ethnicities in the UK (Graham, 2009). Figure 1: Proportion of women and men aged 16 and over assessing their health as not good by income quintile based on equivalized household income, England 2003. (Graham, 2009) This can be explained by considering the advantages that people in the higher socio-economic groups have. These advantages can lead to more knowledge about their health and the care available through improved education, or better continuity of care without issues of complying with treatment regiments such as expensive medication. For example, a man with higher income and education levels will have improved health insurance, increased information about the availability of treatments and will more frequently visit the doctor. This can translate into receiving more screenings such as screenings for colorectal cancer and diabetes. Differences between social classes and how they affect health       Landmark studies such as the Black report have shown that not only do social class inequalities still exist, they are also widening over time (DHHS,1980). Social class inequalities have been observed in all ages for all the major diseases. To try and describe social class inequalities in health, various models have been introduced into the UK such as the behavioural/cultural model, the materialist model, the psycho-social model and the life-course model (Steinbach,2009; Bartley and Blane, 2008; Bartley, 2004; DHHS, 1980). These models differentiate the characteristics affecting health that can be observed in different social classes over the whole period of their lives. For example, by describing the differences in behaviour that distinct social classes have, i.e. the behavioural model. Such as their dietary choices between healthy and unhealthy food, their prevalence to being in contact with drugs, alcohol and tobacco or the inclination to pursuing active leisure time such as hobbies in addition to their approach to healthy life choices such as immunisation, contraception and antenatal services (Steinbach 2009; Bartley, 2004; DHHS, 1980). Another model is the materialist model which describes the differences between social classes to the exposure to health hazards. This encompasses hazards such as air pollution, mold, cold, infestations and respiratory hazards that can arise from bad housing for example. The Black report (DHHS,1980) claims that this model is the most decisive factor leading to health inequalities. But many experts outline that since, in the UK, somewhat disadvantaged people receive various kinds of state aids, therefore it can be argued that housing and other materialistic issues are insufficient to account for major inequalities in health outcomes (Steinbach, 2009; Barley, 2004, DHHS, 1980). The psycho-social model on the other hand describes the principle that what people feel can determine changes in the physiology of the body. For example, a stressful social environment produces an emotional response which alters the state of the body through biological changes and can lead to serious conditions such as heart diseases (ODonnell, 2008). Areas affected can be the social interaction that an individual has every day, the work environment and the balance between home and work paired with their efforts and rewards. It has been shown that people with better relationships with their family and friends and who engage in social activities have better prospects to a healthier lifestyle than those who are rather isolated (Campbell, 2010). The last model focuses on patterns of social, psychological and biological advantages and disadvantages that can occur during the lifetime of a person. Factors that can influence a persons life can arise as early as in-utero and in early childhood. These disadvantages can ultimately accumulate and worsen through childhood and adulthood (Steinbach, 2009; Bartley, 2004). For example, individuals who have experienced differences in autonomy or, on the other hand, shame and doubt in childhood will react differently throughout their adult life (Graham, 2009). These models are represented by landmark studies in social class inequalities in health in the UK such as the Black Report (DHHS, 1980), the Whitehall study of British civil servants (spans over 10 years starting in 1967) and the Acheson report (Acheson, 1988). How gender affects health inequalities Many studies and researches have proven that, in industrialized countries such as the UK, women live longer than men but present more prevalence to ill health (Scambler, 2008). Although men have a greater chance of mortality due to injury and suicide in earlier stages of adulthood coupled with common single causes of death in adulthood such as cardiovascular diseases and cancers, more women than men go through stages of disabilities, notably in older ages. Mental disabilities have mostly been commonly correlated to anxiety and depressive disorders (Steinbach, 2009; Bartley, 2004; Acheson, 1998). The World Health Organisation (WHO) in 2008 suggested that gender differences in health are a result of both biological factors and social factors such as employment, risk taking behaviour, smoking and alcohol (Campbell, 2010). How ethnicity affects health inequalities Unfortunately, the information on death certificates in the UK do not display ethnicity, and mortality data uses country of birth as a defining factor, therefore ethnical minorities born in the UK cannot be determined. But regular documented studies on ethnical inequalities in mortality (Kelly, 2008) have explained that factors such as, migration processes, defined socio-economic disadvantages and genetic and biological differences between ethnic populations account for differences in mortality. Inequalities in the accessibility to health care The access to health care is a supply concern which describes the quality and quantity of services provided to a person and are defined by the health care system itself. In the UK, the health care system is the National Health Service (NHS), a system that was founded on the principle of fairness, meaning people should get the care they need, not the care they can afford (Steinbach, 2009; Cookson, 2016). The inverse care law, first described by Julian Tudor Hart in 1971, states: The availability of good medical care tends to vary inversely with the need for it in the population served (Hart, 1971). Equality of access to health care can be achieved by communities by meeting certain requirements. Factors such as the distance travelled, the transport facilities and communication used, the hospital waiting times, the patient information and knowledge about available treatment and its effectiveness and the costs of all these are considered to contribute to a health care system which is equal to all (Steinbach, 2009; Cookson, 2016). Availability is a determining factor of inequalities in accessibility in health care. Some health care services have been shown to treat population groups differently, denying services to some people and preferring others for a certain treatment. For example, clinicians might have a bias in treating different patients based on individual characteristics even though they have identical needs. The equality in the costs of health care can also be disrupted by imposing costs which differ between people. Or even the information given to different populations can impact the patients outcome. For example, health care organisations who neglect or fail to ensure that everyone is equally conscious to the services available (Goddard and Smith, 2001). The NHS and current health inequality challenges The NHS regularly comes top of international league tables of fairness in health care but it is not perfectly fair. There are inequalities in the volume, quality and outcomes of NHS care received by rich and poor people. These inequalities could get worse as financial austerities start to bite more severely into NHS budgets and may contribute to wider health inequalities in society. These inequalities raise serious concerns about social justice and unfulfilled potential for disadvantaged people to live longer and healthier lives. A research project lead by Richard Cookson in 2012 focused on monitoring fairness of the NHS to make sure inequalities dont get worse and if possible get better. In 2012, the NHS still didnt monitor how inequalities were changing. And NHS decision makers knew that inequalities existed, but they had no way of telling if inequalities were getting better or worse or what influence their decisions were having on inequalities. By monitoring the fairness of the NH S, the results will make sure that everyone, rich or poor, can receive the care they need to live a long and healthy life (Cookson, 2016). Recently, research projects have provided methods of comparing the performance of local NHS areas in tackling inequalities in health care. Alongside similar indicators for wider determinants of health, such as the regularly updated marmot indicators (UCL, 2015). Which review the key areas that need to be improved to make a significant impact on health care inequalities such as strengthening the role and impact of ill health prevention. The methods will assess how well the NHS is tackling inequalities across a broad range of issues (Buck, 2016). An outcome from the Health Equity Indicators for the English NHS: Longitudinal whole-population study at small area level research project showed a great improvement in patient health care by monitoring key stages of the patient pathway (See Figure 2) (Cookson, 2016). Figure 2: Monitoring health care access, quality and outcomes at key stages of the pathway (Cookson, 2016). For example, Figure 3 shows that GP supply increased in all social groups, and the largest increases were in the most deprived areas. As seen below, the pro-rich inequality gradient was eliminated by 2011/2012 (Asaira, 2016). Figure 3: Equity of primary care supply, Patients per full time equivalent GP, excluding registrars and retainers, adjusted for age, sex and health deprivation (Asaira, 2016). Conclusion Health care inequalities most commonly arise from socio-economic conditions and are shaped by political, social and economic forces that can create or destroy a persons health and wellbeing. These problems are now seen as health problems that must be addressed to ensure everyone has an equal chance of a healthy life. Factors such as the costs of healthcare, social class, gender, ethnicity and accessibility to health care all contribute to the quality of life. Recently, projects have been undergone to help improve healthcare in the UK, for example, by monitoring the fairness of its services. In my opinion, the UK is one of the leading health care services in the world despite existing inequalities, but can be improved by further understanding and improving these inequalities, who have been only recently assessed. Total word count: 1966 References: -Acheson D (1998). Independent inquiry into inequalities in health report. London: The Stationary Office. -Asaria M, Ali S, Doran T, ferguson B, Fleetcroft R, Goddard M, goldblatt P, Laudicella M, Raine R, Cookson R. (2016). How a universal health system reduces inequalities: lessons from England. Epidemiology community health. 0 (1), 1-7. -Baker M, Mawby R, Ware J (2015). Health Inequalities. Engalnd: Royal college of general practitioners. 2-16. -Bartley M, Blane D (2008). Inequality and social class in Scambler G, Sociology as applied to medicine. Elsevier Limited. -Bartley M (2004). Health inequality: an introduction to theories, concepts, and methods. Cambridge: Polity Press. -Buck D (2016). The role of the NHS in reducing health inequalities: moving beyond fair access to care. Available: https://www.kingsfund.org.uk/blog/2016/03/reducing-health-inequalities. Last accessed 1st Feb 2017. -Campbell F (2010). The social determinants of health and the role of local government. England: Investor in People. 5-68. -Cookson R (2016), Health Equity Indicators for the NHS, presented at Maximising the impact of the NHS in tackling health inequalities, London, 2016. -Cookson R (2016) Health equity indicators for the English final report to the NIHR HSDR Programme. HSDR -Cookson R, Propper C, Asaria M, raine R. (2016). Socio-Economic Inequalities in Health Care in England. The journal of applied public Economics. 37 (3-4), p371-403. -Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) (1980). Inequalities in health: report of a research working group. (The Black Report). HMSO, London. -Graham H (2009). Understanding Health Inequalities. 2nd ed. England: Open University Press. 1-20. -Goddard M, Smith P (2001). Equity of access to health care services: theory and evidence from the UK. Social Science and Medicine 53:1149-62. -Hart T J. (1971). The inverse care law. The Lancet. 297 (7696), p405-412. -Kelly M, Nazroo J (2008). Ethnicity and Health in Scambler G Sociology as applied to medicine. Elsevier Limited. -Morning, Roberts, Phelan (2015), Social inequalities in health, presented at Social Inequalities in Health, Behavioral and Social Sciences Research Lecture Series, Bethesda, 2015. -ODonnell, K.; Brydon, L.; Wright, C.; Steptoe, A. (2008). Self-esteem levels and cardiovascular and inflammatory responses to acute stress. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity. 22 (8): 1241-1247 -Scambler A (2008). Women and Health in Scambler G Sociology as applied to medicine. Elsevier Limited. Steinbach R. (2009). Inequalities in the distribution of health and health care and its access, including inequalities relating to social class, gender, culture and ethnicity, and their causes. Available: http://www.healthknowledge.org.uk/public-health-textbook/medical-sociology-policy-economics/4c-equality-equity-policy/inequalities-distribution. Last accessed 1st Feb 2017. -The National Institute for Health and Care Exellence. (Oct 2012). Health inequalities and population health. Available: https://www.nice.org.uk/advice/lgb4/chapter/introduction. Last accessed 1st Feb 2017. -UCL Institute of Health Equity. (2015). Marmot Indicators 2015. Available: http://www.instituteofhealthequity.org/projects/marmot-indicators-2015. Last accessed 1st Feb 2017.

The Labor Unions Essay -- essays research papers fc

The Labor Unions   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Unions have become commonplace in the labor arena. They provide employees with a valuable tool that allows them to stand together against their employer to make sure that their rights are upheld in the workplace. This paper will focus on labor unions with regards to how they work in two very different companies, Ford Motor Company and United Airlines. Also, a brief history will be outlined as well as legislation regarding unions.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Many unions are at battle with their respected employers. Some of these fights are better known than other fights. United Airlines is trying to renegotiate contracts to save their company money. This has been a long battle for United, that some may see as having begun with the events of September 11, 2001. In truth, the International Association of Machinists, the union that represents a majority of United employees and United have been locked in a heated battle for some time now, even before the events of that September.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  By contrast, Ford Motor Company has had very little trouble recently with the union that represents the majority of their employees. The UAW has not gone on strike at Ford since 1976. The last time that Ford-UAW relationship even made the news was in 1999, when the UAW was negotiating their new contract. Comparatively speaking, the two companies could not be further apart when it comes to working with their respective unions. History Although some people trace the beginning of labor unions in the United States to the very beginning, when guilds men got off the Mayflower at Plymouth Rock, the beginning of the modern labor movement began in 1886. That is the year when Samuel Gompers founded the American Federation of Labor. The statement of the founders of the AFL reads in part: The various trades have been affected by the introduction of machinery, the subdivision of labor, the use of women's and children's labor and the lack of an apprentice system-so that the skilled trades were rapidly sinking to the level of pauper labor. To protect the skilled labor of America from being reduced to beggary and to sustain the standard of American workmanship and skill, the trades unions of America have been established. (AFL-CIO, 2002)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The first major union strike in this country was the P... ...8/2004 at http://money.cnn.com/2002/11/18/news/companies/ual/ Commission for Labor Cooperation (2002) â€Å" United States Labor Law.† Viewed online on 11/18/2004 at http://www.naalc.org/english/publications/labormain.htm Encyclopedia Britannica, Online Edition (2002) â€Å"Labor History: United States.† viewed   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  online at http://www.britannica.com International Assocaition of Machinists (2002) â€Å"Union Member ights and Officer   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Responsibilities Under the LMRDA.† Viewed online on 11/18/2004 at   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://www.goiam.org/memberadvantages.asp?c=884 U.S. Department of Labor (2002) â€Å"The Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Act.† Viewed online on 11/18/2004 at   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://www.doleta.gov/programs/factsht/warn.htm U.S. Department of Labor: Occupational Health and Safety Administration (2002)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"OSHA’s Mission.† Viewed online on 11/18/2004 at   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://www.osha.gov/oshinfo/mission.html. United Autoworkers of America (2002) Viewed online on 11/18/2004 at   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://www.UAW.org

Scientific Management

Course: Bachelor of Business Studies (BBS) Module: Principals of Management Title: Explain Scientific Management. Comment on the contribution of this approach to the development of management thought. What are its limitations? 33 Submission Date: 8th of March 2010 Word Count 2183 â€Å"The Principal object of management should be to secure the maximum prosperity for the employer, coupled with the maximum prosperity for each employee† (Taylor, 1947) Introduction The Author will discuss Scientific Management under the following headings: Section 1 An explanation on Scientific Management. Section 2, The contribution of Scientific Management to the development of Management thought and Section 3 looks at the limitations of Scientific Management. What is Scientific Management? Bratton et al (2007: 355) defines scientific management as a process of systematically partitioning work into its smallest elements and standardising tasks to achieve maximum efficiency. The scientific management approach was developed at the end of the 19th Century; its father is commonly accepted to be Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1917) although some variations of the theory have been developed by Gantt and Gilbreth. The scientific management approach was set up to improve labour productivity by evaluating and setting up workflow practices. Taylor was Chief Engineer at the Midvale Steel Company his first-hand experience here led Taylor to recognise that labour productivity was largely inefficient due to a workforce that functioned by â€Å"rules of thumb† methods. In 1898 Taylor was employed as a consultant by the Bethlehem Steel works Company, where he applied his principles of scientific management through evaluating work in a scientific manner. Taylor gained this information with his â€Å"Time and Motion Study†, as Dale explains, Taylor employed a young man to analyse all the operations and the motions performed in each and to time the motions with a stopwatch. From knowing how long it took actually to perform each of the elements in each job, it would be possible †¦ To determine a really â€Å"fair days work†. (Dale 1963, p155) Taylor’s experience at Bethlehem Steel led him to develop four principals of management. The first being substitute rule of thumb work processes with processes based on a scientific study of the tasks. Taylor broke down each part of the production process into individual tasks to accomplish task specialisation. Taylor also used time and motion studies to establish the most proficient technique for performing each work task and giving rest periods. Secondly, managers should select, train, teach and develop the most suitable person for each job. Taylor hated â€Å"soldering†, and by introducing a piece-rate system of pay he eliminated the group process in which workers slowed their speed of work to suit the ordinary worker’s needs. Thirdly, comprehensive training and supervision to each worker must be given by management to guarantee the job is done in a scientific way and finally scientific management principals need to be applied to the planning and supervising of work and the workforce complete the tasks. The Principals of scientific management were widely accepted and spread as far as the Soviet Union where Taylor’s principals were included into a variety of five-year development plans. The most well-known application of Taylor’s principals of scientific management was in Henry Ford’s Model T. Frank Gilbreth (1868 –1924) and his wife Lillian (1878 – 1972), developed variations of Taylor’s scientific management, they were mostly concerned with the elimination of waste and like Taylor thought that a â€Å"One Best Way† to carry out a task could be found. Another contributor to scientific management was Henry Gantt (1856-1915) who was a protege of Taylor’s who designed the Gantt chart a straight line chart to display and measure planned and completed work as time elapsed. The contribution of Scientific Management to the development of Management thought Scientific management does play an important role in the 21st Century. Examples of scientific management can be seen in our car and computer industries, the hospitals and the restaurants we eat in and nearly all function more efficiently due to scientific management. In today’s economic environment scientific management is probably more important in today’s businesses then ever before. The Author will discuss this under the following headings: Scientific Study of work, use of incentives, division of labour and the selection and training of workers. Scientific Study of work The fundamental tools that result in increased productivity are time study standards and work design. For example in the production department of any company materials are requested and controlled; the sequence of operations, inspections, and methods are determined; tools are ordered; time values are assigned; work is scheduled, dispatched and followed up. A good example of scientific management in today’s society is any of the directory enquires numbers, staff read from a script and simple ask what number you want and then a computer reads out the number and even asks if you would like to be connected. Use of incentives According to Taylor workers were only motivated by money, in today’s workplace Taylor’s piece rate pay may have a different name â€Å"performance related pay† is how its new trading name and most of the Multi International companies now pay their workers a very basic pay and only rewards staff who excel at there jobs. According to Taylor one should â€Å"pay the worker, not the job†. In the Authors organisation Eircom all staff from the lines engineers to the managers are all paid by performance and this has helped to eliminate a lot of the ‘soldiering’ that used to take place. Division of Labour Scientific management gives managers control and this can be seen in many of our call centres whether its directory enquires or calling the bank ‘thank you for calling and how may I direct your call? ’ these scripts show us 21st Century management control. Management see these scripts as necessary to keep workers efficient and consistent but it is just modern day Taylorism which assumes that workers are dim and lazy. Selection and training of workers Finding the ‘best’ person for the job is still a challenge for many companies. Many companies now use automated curriculum vitae processing by computers with scientific personality testing to try and match the job to the right person. Employers are looking for employees to work hard, be flexible and to be skilled. It is imperative to get the right people, with the right skills in the right positions and at the right time. Choosing the right people may increase an organisations competitive advantage which is after all central to competitive success of any organisation. Limitations of scientific management Scientific management has been in a state of constant evolution since its adoption. The objective of the scientific management movement was to increase efficiency by carefully planning workers’ movement in the most efficient way. Taylor’s ideas and those of his followers led to time-and-motion experts with their stopwatches and clipboards observing workers, and seeking the ‘one best way’ in which every job could be performed. From the late 1920s, a ‘human relations’ school of thought emerged, challenging Taylorist beliefs in formal work structures and what was considered to be the over-simplification of the concept of motivation. Scientific Management was based on the assumption that workers were driven entirely by economic concerns but Human Relations researchers examined the behaviour of people at work and argued that social factors such as informal work groups and management styles influenced performance. As a result, the personnel management function began to focus on matching the needs of employees with those of management, through the creation of informal structures and managerial styles (Gormley 2009). The Hawthorne Studies conducted by Elton Mayo and his colleagues are exemplary early studies in this tradition and work on motivation by Abraham Maslow although their ideas were built on the original quantitative theories of measuring work as seen in scientific management they also discovered some of the limitations of ‘Taylorism’. The Author will now discuss the limitations of scientific management as discovered by Mayo, Maslow and Deming. Elton Mayo and the Hawthorne Studies The Bank Wiring Observation Room Experiments which involved a group of men being observed in their natural work setting with no changes to their working conditions but with an observer taking notes and interviewing them. The group had set there own standards and restricted their output. They had decided what their daily limit was and what constituted as a fair day’s work and this was not to be exceeded by any worker. The results showed Mayo that workers were dissatisfied with the scientific approach. Mayo’s results placed focus on the social context of work: in particular, worker motivation, group dynamics and group relations. The workers were joined in there opposition to management and were not motivated by the financial incentives offered for higher output. Data gathered at the Hawthorne plant (collectively known as The Hawthorne studies) suggested a positive association between labour productivity and management styles. Abraham Maslow (Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs) Maslow was concerned with the issue of employee motivation and wanted to explain how workers could be motivated to achieve higher performance. Maslow focused on the paternalistic style of management focusing on employees’ social needs as the key to better relations and better erformance. This became known as Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, the needs which Maslow identified started with †¢ Physiological needs – food and shelter †¢ Safety needs – the need to feel secure †¢ Acceptance needs – the need to feel accepted by others †¢ Esteem needs – the need for self respect †¢ S elf Actualisation – the need for self achievement and fulfilment W. Deming and Total Quality Management Total quality management (TQM) sees quality as a key to organisational success and emphasizes prevention rather than the correction of mistakes. In the Authors opinion TQM is probably the modern day ‘Taylorism’ the four principals of TQM are. Plan Prepare and plan in a structured way by learning from the past and setting benchmarks for change. Do If your goal is far-reaching, start small and evaluate your results before going wider. Study Analyze the results of what you have done and find out how to apply what you have learned to future activities. Act – Do what you need to do to make your process better and easier to replicate In Demings 14 point management plan, Deming wanted everything to be uniform , in delivery times , prices and work practices. . Create constancy of purpose towards improvement. Replace short-term reaction with long-term planning. 2. Adopt the new philosophy. The implication is that management should actually adopt his philosophy, rather than merely expect the workforce to do so. 3. Cease dependence on inspection. If variation is reduced, there is no need to inspect manufactured items for defects, because there won't be any. 4. Move towards a single supplier for any one item. 5. Improve constantly and forever. Constantly strive to reduce variation. 6. Institute training on the job. If people are inadequately trained, they will not all work the same way, and this will introduce variation. 7. Institute leadership. Deming makes a distinction between leadership and mere supervision. 8. Drive out fear. Deming sees management by fear as counter- productive in the long term, because it prevents workers from acting in the organisation's best interests. 9. Break down barriers between departments. Another idea central to TQM is the concept of the ‘internal customer', that each department serves not the management, but the other departments that use its outputs. 10. Eliminate slogans. Another central TQM idea is that it's not people who make most mistakes – it's the process they are working within. Harassing the workforce without improving the processes they use is counter-productive. 11. Eliminate management by objectives. Deming saw production targets as encouraging the delivery of poor-quality goods. 12. Remove barriers to pride of workmanship. Many of the other problems outlined reduce worker satisfaction. 13. Institute education and self-improvement. 14. The transformation is everyone's job. Each of these management models teaches us something about the limitations of scientific management. Scientific Management is often associated with negative consequences both for workers, who may consider themselves to be victims of exploitation and for managers, who may find it difficult to motivate such workers or to deal with poor performance and resistance. Conclusion Considering that Frederick Taylor has been dead for nearly a century and in this time a knowledge explosion has taken place, Taylor’s track record is extraordinary. If Taylor, Gantt, Gilbreth and Lillian were alive today would they be happy with what has become management thought? In the Authors pinion many of the different management styles all share certain similar characteristics of scientific management and the Author believes that they would all find the total participation movement quite acceptable. The Scientific management theories discussed above evolved from the needs of the past to manage mainly the labour force. The needs of the present in the current economic climate may require similar recordin g of procedures as involved with time and motion studies during the Industrial Revolution in the past to regulate the workings of Finance in Banking and related areas mainly facilitated by the IT Revolution. Rest assured that changes in the past and the present and their successful resolution by scientific management will be replicated many times in the future and hopefully the resolutions will improve/maximise the return for the employer (stakeholder) and employee. In conclusion there is no single ‘best’ strategy or style of management. The ‘best’ solution is the one that is most fitting in relation to the particular needs of that organisation. Bibliography Bratton, J, (2007) Work and Organisational Behaviour, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, . Dale, E. (1973) Management, Theory & Practice. New York: McGraw-Hill. Griffin, R. (2009) Fundamentals of Management. (5th Edition), USA: South Western College Gunnigle, P, and Heraty, N. and Morley, M. J. , (2006). Human Resource Management in Ireland. (3rd Edition) Dublin, Gill & Macmillan. Taylor, F, (1947). Scientific Management . New York: Harper Row. Tiernan, S. and Morley, M. and Foley, E. (2006). Modern Management (3rd Edition) Dublin, Gill & Macmillan Scientific Management While this theory has made many positive contributions to management practice, there have also been negative implications. On a positive note, Taylorism has made an impact on the introduction of the 8 hour working day, minimum wage rates and incentive and bonus schemes, and more importantly, highlighted management as an important area of study, allowing for other theorists to improve on, or provide alternative management theories in response to scientific management such as more worker orientated theories, namely behavioural management. Taylor’s ideals have however been under constant scrutiny as managers highlight the shortfalls of scientific management. While the highly mechanistic way of practice may lead to increased productivity, it essentially works by dehumanising workers and viewing them simply as an ‘appendage of machinery. ’ Caldari argues (2007: 61) that Taylor’s ignorance of social considerations leads to conflict, low worker morale, and low trust between workers and neglect the ability for individual creativity to provide a positive input to the workplace. While Taylor’s theories have been subject to many criticisms, scientific management has made an instrumental contribution to modern management practice across the world. By placing emphasis on the management of workers, Taylor essentially highlighted the importance of management theory and paved the way for further development on management as an important element of business practices. Taylor created a way of replacing the ‘guesswork’ involved in the manufacturing process by replacing it with a scientific way of thinking, strict rules and procedures (Caldari 2007: 58). This form of management practice allows managers to more efficiently control and direct their labour force and similarly it provides space for managers to monitor the workforce, and identify inefficiencies and sources of waste in the manufacturing process. As Parker and Ritson discuss (2005: 1340), this allows managers to observe the labour force and ensure that appropriate work procedures are being followed and appropriate results are achieved. Thus, creating space for managers to correct these inefficiencies early in the manufacturing process and minimise waste, subsequently maximising profits. Therefore, although Taylor's contributions were considered controversial and even radical, his theory and dedication to management practice remains influential on contemporary business management, and he can be held responsible for laying the foundations for current strategic and systematic methods of planning and execution of tasks (Darmody, 2007: 1). Regardless of the benefits that may be gained from scientific work practices, criticism stemmed from the impression that Taylor had little concern with the psychology of workers. Taylor’s search for a healthy and efficient workforce however, stemmed from research conducted on the relationship between long working hours and fatigue. Taylor was concerned with the effect that working hours was having on productivity and upon results of such experiments, proceeded to introduce shorter working hours believing that with fewer hours comes higher efficiency, intensified laboured hours and improved employee wellbeing. It is upon this philosophy, that Nyl (1995: 2) argues scientific management; primarily Taylor’s thinking was instrumental in creating the 8 hour working day of which is still implemented in many businesses today. In despite of the above mentioned interest in worker well-being, Caldari (2007: 64) emphasises that Taylor naively assumed that with less, but more intense hours, increased productivity and wages, well being of workers would automatically improve. However, due to the intensely standardised and restrictive rules and procedures that scientific management brings workers are likely to feel unappreciated leaving the door open to the potential of conflict between workers and managers. In this case, a strict line of command is seen to have connection with low worker morale as high productivity is achieved at a price. Caldari cites Marshall (2007: 66) saying that â€Å"trust, esteem and affection for staff are a valuable business asset, of a kind which machinery cannot achieve. † This emphasis recognises one of the downfalls of scientific management in that it restricts the development of a cohesive ‘team’ like workforce, rather restricting management focus to individuals. The constraints that are placed on individuals prevent any worker initiative and eventually depriving a business of potentially important and vital input from employees. As Caldari (2007) points out, managers â€Å"can miss the opportunity of taking advantage of potential resources but also, and moreover, for society that it is likely to waste its more important kind of capital. † (p. 67) With this impression in mind, although Freeman’s discussion (1996: 2) focused primarily on the effect of scientific management in a Japanese business environment, he makes some interesting observations about Taylor’s mechanistic approach that can transcend cultural barriers. Freeman highlights that while criticism’s of Scientific management revolve around it being ‘anti-worker,’ scientific management and ‘democratic’ management (which pays closer attention to the psychology and respect for workers) do not necessarily have to conflict. It is held that while the needs of workers are of foremost importance, Taylor’s ideal of quality management allowed for reduction in waste and increased production in Japanese business practices. In this context, scientific management was instrumental in improving efficiency and creating quality constraints, which ultimately lead to increased profits. Freeman highlights (1996: 6) that by working with unions with an even handed focus on the interests of workers and productivity, business practice can meet a happy medium between scientific management and human relations in the management of business. This ideal emphasises that although some managers claim that there is no place in modern business practice for scientific management, it is possible for Taylor’s ideals to transcend time as managers adapt scientific theories and collaborate Taylor’s methods with other theorists that have followed in his steps. Taylor’s scientific management has resulted in both positive and negative implications for business practice over the 20th and 21st century. We can see its contribution to modern business management in that many of its principles are still used today for example, minimum wage, rest periods and incentives for workers who reach a specified target. While these theories were originally implemented in businesses such as Henry Ford’s car manufacturing, we can see that these processes continue to benefit managers today both in that very same business, and in the same ways in other industries including, and not limited to the hospitality industry where for example, detailed procedures and rules are enforced by a strict line of autocratic managers in a strict line of command at McDonalds or Hungry Jacks. It has been highlighted that although Taylor’s scientific management incorporates shortfalls with regards to the management of a workforce as far as viewing a workforce as valuable human resources rather than machinery, in today’s management practices, elements of Taylor’s theory are able to work in conjunction with often more palatable behavioural theories in order to control and monitor a successful workforce. Taylor was instrumental for creating a new ‘paradigm’ of management thinking and the scientific management theory does, and will continue impart to influence the way businesses operate and complete day to day tasks and assignments (Darmody, 2007: 1). Caldari, K. (2007). ‘Alfred Marshall’s critical analysis of scientific management. ’ The European Journal of the History of Economic Thought,14 (1), 55-78. Darmody, P. J. (2007). ‘Henry L. Gantt and Frederick Taylor: The Pioneers of Scientific Management. ’ AACE International Transactions, 151. Davidson (2008) Management: Core Concepts and Skills in ‘Management', John Wiley, Milton. Freeman, M. G. (1996) ‘Don’t throw scientific management out with the bathwater. ’ _Quality Progress,_ 29(4), Parker, L. D. Ritson, P. (2005) ‘Fads, stereotypes and management gurus: Fayol and Follett today. ’ Management Decision, 43(10), 1335. Scientific Management Course: Bachelor of Business Studies (BBS) Module: Principals of Management Title: Explain Scientific Management. Comment on the contribution of this approach to the development of management thought. What are its limitations? 33 Submission Date: 8th of March 2010 Word Count 2183 â€Å"The Principal object of management should be to secure the maximum prosperity for the employer, coupled with the maximum prosperity for each employee† (Taylor, 1947) Introduction The Author will discuss Scientific Management under the following headings: Section 1 An explanation on Scientific Management. Section 2, The contribution of Scientific Management to the development of Management thought and Section 3 looks at the limitations of Scientific Management. What is Scientific Management? Bratton et al (2007: 355) defines scientific management as a process of systematically partitioning work into its smallest elements and standardising tasks to achieve maximum efficiency. The scientific management approach was developed at the end of the 19th Century; its father is commonly accepted to be Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1917) although some variations of the theory have been developed by Gantt and Gilbreth. The scientific management approach was set up to improve labour productivity by evaluating and setting up workflow practices. Taylor was Chief Engineer at the Midvale Steel Company his first-hand experience here led Taylor to recognise that labour productivity was largely inefficient due to a workforce that functioned by â€Å"rules of thumb† methods. In 1898 Taylor was employed as a consultant by the Bethlehem Steel works Company, where he applied his principles of scientific management through evaluating work in a scientific manner. Taylor gained this information with his â€Å"Time and Motion Study†, as Dale explains, Taylor employed a young man to analyse all the operations and the motions performed in each and to time the motions with a stopwatch. From knowing how long it took actually to perform each of the elements in each job, it would be possible †¦ To determine a really â€Å"fair days work†. (Dale 1963, p155) Taylor’s experience at Bethlehem Steel led him to develop four principals of management. The first being substitute rule of thumb work processes with processes based on a scientific study of the tasks. Taylor broke down each part of the production process into individual tasks to accomplish task specialisation. Taylor also used time and motion studies to establish the most proficient technique for performing each work task and giving rest periods. Secondly, managers should select, train, teach and develop the most suitable person for each job. Taylor hated â€Å"soldering†, and by introducing a piece-rate system of pay he eliminated the group process in which workers slowed their speed of work to suit the ordinary worker’s needs. Thirdly, comprehensive training and supervision to each worker must be given by management to guarantee the job is done in a scientific way and finally scientific management principals need to be applied to the planning and supervising of work and the workforce complete the tasks. The Principals of scientific management were widely accepted and spread as far as the Soviet Union where Taylor’s principals were included into a variety of five-year development plans. The most well-known application of Taylor’s principals of scientific management was in Henry Ford’s Model T. Frank Gilbreth (1868 –1924) and his wife Lillian (1878 – 1972), developed variations of Taylor’s scientific management, they were mostly concerned with the elimination of waste and like Taylor thought that a â€Å"One Best Way† to carry out a task could be found. Another contributor to scientific management was Henry Gantt (1856-1915) who was a protege of Taylor’s who designed the Gantt chart a straight line chart to display and measure planned and completed work as time elapsed. The contribution of Scientific Management to the development of Management thought Scientific management does play an important role in the 21st Century. Examples of scientific management can be seen in our car and computer industries, the hospitals and the restaurants we eat in and nearly all function more efficiently due to scientific management. In today’s economic environment scientific management is probably more important in today’s businesses then ever before. The Author will discuss this under the following headings: Scientific Study of work, use of incentives, division of labour and the selection and training of workers. Scientific Study of work The fundamental tools that result in increased productivity are time study standards and work design. For example in the production department of any company materials are requested and controlled; the sequence of operations, inspections, and methods are determined; tools are ordered; time values are assigned; work is scheduled, dispatched and followed up. A good example of scientific management in today’s society is any of the directory enquires numbers, staff read from a script and simple ask what number you want and then a computer reads out the number and even asks if you would like to be connected. Use of incentives According to Taylor workers were only motivated by money, in today’s workplace Taylor’s piece rate pay may have a different name â€Å"performance related pay† is how its new trading name and most of the Multi International companies now pay their workers a very basic pay and only rewards staff who excel at there jobs. According to Taylor one should â€Å"pay the worker, not the job†. In the Authors organisation Eircom all staff from the lines engineers to the managers are all paid by performance and this has helped to eliminate a lot of the ‘soldiering’ that used to take place. Division of Labour Scientific management gives managers control and this can be seen in many of our call centres whether its directory enquires or calling the bank ‘thank you for calling and how may I direct your call? ’ these scripts show us 21st Century management control. Management see these scripts as necessary to keep workers efficient and consistent but it is just modern day Taylorism which assumes that workers are dim and lazy. Selection and training of workers Finding the ‘best’ person for the job is still a challenge for many companies. Many companies now use automated curriculum vitae processing by computers with scientific personality testing to try and match the job to the right person. Employers are looking for employees to work hard, be flexible and to be skilled. It is imperative to get the right people, with the right skills in the right positions and at the right time. Choosing the right people may increase an organisations competitive advantage which is after all central to competitive success of any organisation. Limitations of scientific management Scientific management has been in a state of constant evolution since its adoption. The objective of the scientific management movement was to increase efficiency by carefully planning workers’ movement in the most efficient way. Taylor’s ideas and those of his followers led to time-and-motion experts with their stopwatches and clipboards observing workers, and seeking the ‘one best way’ in which every job could be performed. From the late 1920s, a ‘human relations’ school of thought emerged, challenging Taylorist beliefs in formal work structures and what was considered to be the over-simplification of the concept of motivation. Scientific Management was based on the assumption that workers were driven entirely by economic concerns but Human Relations researchers examined the behaviour of people at work and argued that social factors such as informal work groups and management styles influenced performance. As a result, the personnel management function began to focus on matching the needs of employees with those of management, through the creation of informal structures and managerial styles (Gormley 2009). The Hawthorne Studies conducted by Elton Mayo and his colleagues are exemplary early studies in this tradition and work on motivation by Abraham Maslow although their ideas were built on the original quantitative theories of measuring work as seen in scientific management they also discovered some of the limitations of ‘Taylorism’. The Author will now discuss the limitations of scientific management as discovered by Mayo, Maslow and Deming. Elton Mayo and the Hawthorne Studies The Bank Wiring Observation Room Experiments which involved a group of men being observed in their natural work setting with no changes to their working conditions but with an observer taking notes and interviewing them. The group had set there own standards and restricted their output. They had decided what their daily limit was and what constituted as a fair day’s work and this was not to be exceeded by any worker. The results showed Mayo that workers were dissatisfied with the scientific approach. Mayo’s results placed focus on the social context of work: in particular, worker motivation, group dynamics and group relations. The workers were joined in there opposition to management and were not motivated by the financial incentives offered for higher output. Data gathered at the Hawthorne plant (collectively known as The Hawthorne studies) suggested a positive association between labour productivity and management styles. Abraham Maslow (Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs) Maslow was concerned with the issue of employee motivation and wanted to explain how workers could be motivated to achieve higher performance. Maslow focused on the paternalistic style of management focusing on employees’ social needs as the key to better relations and better erformance. This became known as Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, the needs which Maslow identified started with †¢ Physiological needs – food and shelter †¢ Safety needs – the need to feel secure †¢ Acceptance needs – the need to feel accepted by others †¢ Esteem needs – the need for self respect †¢ S elf Actualisation – the need for self achievement and fulfilment W. Deming and Total Quality Management Total quality management (TQM) sees quality as a key to organisational success and emphasizes prevention rather than the correction of mistakes. In the Authors opinion TQM is probably the modern day ‘Taylorism’ the four principals of TQM are. Plan Prepare and plan in a structured way by learning from the past and setting benchmarks for change. Do If your goal is far-reaching, start small and evaluate your results before going wider. Study Analyze the results of what you have done and find out how to apply what you have learned to future activities. Act – Do what you need to do to make your process better and easier to replicate In Demings 14 point management plan, Deming wanted everything to be uniform , in delivery times , prices and work practices. . Create constancy of purpose towards improvement. Replace short-term reaction with long-term planning. 2. Adopt the new philosophy. The implication is that management should actually adopt his philosophy, rather than merely expect the workforce to do so. 3. Cease dependence on inspection. If variation is reduced, there is no need to inspect manufactured items for defects, because there won't be any. 4. Move towards a single supplier for any one item. 5. Improve constantly and forever. Constantly strive to reduce variation. 6. Institute training on the job. If people are inadequately trained, they will not all work the same way, and this will introduce variation. 7. Institute leadership. Deming makes a distinction between leadership and mere supervision. 8. Drive out fear. Deming sees management by fear as counter- productive in the long term, because it prevents workers from acting in the organisation's best interests. 9. Break down barriers between departments. Another idea central to TQM is the concept of the ‘internal customer', that each department serves not the management, but the other departments that use its outputs. 10. Eliminate slogans. Another central TQM idea is that it's not people who make most mistakes – it's the process they are working within. Harassing the workforce without improving the processes they use is counter-productive. 11. Eliminate management by objectives. Deming saw production targets as encouraging the delivery of poor-quality goods. 12. Remove barriers to pride of workmanship. Many of the other problems outlined reduce worker satisfaction. 13. Institute education and self-improvement. 14. The transformation is everyone's job. Each of these management models teaches us something about the limitations of scientific management. Scientific Management is often associated with negative consequences both for workers, who may consider themselves to be victims of exploitation and for managers, who may find it difficult to motivate such workers or to deal with poor performance and resistance. Conclusion Considering that Frederick Taylor has been dead for nearly a century and in this time a knowledge explosion has taken place, Taylor’s track record is extraordinary. If Taylor, Gantt, Gilbreth and Lillian were alive today would they be happy with what has become management thought? In the Authors pinion many of the different management styles all share certain similar characteristics of scientific management and the Author believes that they would all find the total participation movement quite acceptable. The Scientific management theories discussed above evolved from the needs of the past to manage mainly the labour force. The needs of the present in the current economic climate may require similar recordin g of procedures as involved with time and motion studies during the Industrial Revolution in the past to regulate the workings of Finance in Banking and related areas mainly facilitated by the IT Revolution. Rest assured that changes in the past and the present and their successful resolution by scientific management will be replicated many times in the future and hopefully the resolutions will improve/maximise the return for the employer (stakeholder) and employee. In conclusion there is no single ‘best’ strategy or style of management. The ‘best’ solution is the one that is most fitting in relation to the particular needs of that organisation. Bibliography Bratton, J, (2007) Work and Organisational Behaviour, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, . Dale, E. (1973) Management, Theory & Practice. New York: McGraw-Hill. Griffin, R. (2009) Fundamentals of Management. (5th Edition), USA: South Western College Gunnigle, P, and Heraty, N. and Morley, M. J. , (2006). Human Resource Management in Ireland. (3rd Edition) Dublin, Gill & Macmillan. Taylor, F, (1947). Scientific Management . New York: Harper Row. Tiernan, S. and Morley, M. and Foley, E. (2006). Modern Management (3rd Edition) Dublin, Gill & Macmillan Scientific Management While this theory has made many positive contributions to management practice, there have also been negative implications. On a positive note, Taylorism has made an impact on the introduction of the 8 hour working day, minimum wage rates and incentive and bonus schemes, and more importantly, highlighted management as an important area of study, allowing for other theorists to improve on, or provide alternative management theories in response to scientific management such as more worker orientated theories, namely behavioural management. Taylor’s ideals have however been under constant scrutiny as managers highlight the shortfalls of scientific management. While the highly mechanistic way of practice may lead to increased productivity, it essentially works by dehumanising workers and viewing them simply as an ‘appendage of machinery. ’ Caldari argues (2007: 61) that Taylor’s ignorance of social considerations leads to conflict, low worker morale, and low trust between workers and neglect the ability for individual creativity to provide a positive input to the workplace. While Taylor’s theories have been subject to many criticisms, scientific management has made an instrumental contribution to modern management practice across the world. By placing emphasis on the management of workers, Taylor essentially highlighted the importance of management theory and paved the way for further development on management as an important element of business practices. Taylor created a way of replacing the ‘guesswork’ involved in the manufacturing process by replacing it with a scientific way of thinking, strict rules and procedures (Caldari 2007: 58). This form of management practice allows managers to more efficiently control and direct their labour force and similarly it provides space for managers to monitor the workforce, and identify inefficiencies and sources of waste in the manufacturing process. As Parker and Ritson discuss (2005: 1340), this allows managers to observe the labour force and ensure that appropriate work procedures are being followed and appropriate results are achieved. Thus, creating space for managers to correct these inefficiencies early in the manufacturing process and minimise waste, subsequently maximising profits. Therefore, although Taylor's contributions were considered controversial and even radical, his theory and dedication to management practice remains influential on contemporary business management, and he can be held responsible for laying the foundations for current strategic and systematic methods of planning and execution of tasks (Darmody, 2007: 1). Regardless of the benefits that may be gained from scientific work practices, criticism stemmed from the impression that Taylor had little concern with the psychology of workers. Taylor’s search for a healthy and efficient workforce however, stemmed from research conducted on the relationship between long working hours and fatigue. Taylor was concerned with the effect that working hours was having on productivity and upon results of such experiments, proceeded to introduce shorter working hours believing that with fewer hours comes higher efficiency, intensified laboured hours and improved employee wellbeing. It is upon this philosophy, that Nyl (1995: 2) argues scientific management; primarily Taylor’s thinking was instrumental in creating the 8 hour working day of which is still implemented in many businesses today. In despite of the above mentioned interest in worker well-being, Caldari (2007: 64) emphasises that Taylor naively assumed that with less, but more intense hours, increased productivity and wages, well being of workers would automatically improve. However, due to the intensely standardised and restrictive rules and procedures that scientific management brings workers are likely to feel unappreciated leaving the door open to the potential of conflict between workers and managers. In this case, a strict line of command is seen to have connection with low worker morale as high productivity is achieved at a price. Caldari cites Marshall (2007: 66) saying that â€Å"trust, esteem and affection for staff are a valuable business asset, of a kind which machinery cannot achieve. † This emphasis recognises one of the downfalls of scientific management in that it restricts the development of a cohesive ‘team’ like workforce, rather restricting management focus to individuals. The constraints that are placed on individuals prevent any worker initiative and eventually depriving a business of potentially important and vital input from employees. As Caldari (2007) points out, managers â€Å"can miss the opportunity of taking advantage of potential resources but also, and moreover, for society that it is likely to waste its more important kind of capital. † (p. 67) With this impression in mind, although Freeman’s discussion (1996: 2) focused primarily on the effect of scientific management in a Japanese business environment, he makes some interesting observations about Taylor’s mechanistic approach that can transcend cultural barriers. Freeman highlights that while criticism’s of Scientific management revolve around it being ‘anti-worker,’ scientific management and ‘democratic’ management (which pays closer attention to the psychology and respect for workers) do not necessarily have to conflict. It is held that while the needs of workers are of foremost importance, Taylor’s ideal of quality management allowed for reduction in waste and increased production in Japanese business practices. In this context, scientific management was instrumental in improving efficiency and creating quality constraints, which ultimately lead to increased profits. Freeman highlights (1996: 6) that by working with unions with an even handed focus on the interests of workers and productivity, business practice can meet a happy medium between scientific management and human relations in the management of business. This ideal emphasises that although some managers claim that there is no place in modern business practice for scientific management, it is possible for Taylor’s ideals to transcend time as managers adapt scientific theories and collaborate Taylor’s methods with other theorists that have followed in his steps. Taylor’s scientific management has resulted in both positive and negative implications for business practice over the 20th and 21st century. We can see its contribution to modern business management in that many of its principles are still used today for example, minimum wage, rest periods and incentives for workers who reach a specified target. While these theories were originally implemented in businesses such as Henry Ford’s car manufacturing, we can see that these processes continue to benefit managers today both in that very same business, and in the same ways in other industries including, and not limited to the hospitality industry where for example, detailed procedures and rules are enforced by a strict line of autocratic managers in a strict line of command at McDonalds or Hungry Jacks. It has been highlighted that although Taylor’s scientific management incorporates shortfalls with regards to the management of a workforce as far as viewing a workforce as valuable human resources rather than machinery, in today’s management practices, elements of Taylor’s theory are able to work in conjunction with often more palatable behavioural theories in order to control and monitor a successful workforce. Taylor was instrumental for creating a new ‘paradigm’ of management thinking and the scientific management theory does, and will continue impart to influence the way businesses operate and complete day to day tasks and assignments (Darmody, 2007: 1). Caldari, K. (2007). ‘Alfred Marshall’s critical analysis of scientific management. ’ The European Journal of the History of Economic Thought,14 (1), 55-78. Darmody, P. J. (2007). ‘Henry L. Gantt and Frederick Taylor: The Pioneers of Scientific Management. ’ AACE International Transactions, 151. Davidson (2008) Management: Core Concepts and Skills in ‘Management', John Wiley, Milton. Freeman, M. G. (1996) ‘Don’t throw scientific management out with the bathwater. ’ _Quality Progress,_ 29(4), Parker, L. D. Ritson, P. (2005) ‘Fads, stereotypes and management gurus: Fayol and Follett today. ’ Management Decision, 43(10), 1335.